Part 7: Name-Calling Back to Contents.

Part 7: Name-Calling Back to Contents

PIG! EGGHEAD! REDNECK! Part 7: Name-Calling
Consider the words above, each of which is used as a derogatory term for a certain type of person. Do any of the words evoke an emotional response? Back to Contents

Part 7: Name-Calling Name-calling is the use of negative words to disparage an enemy or an opposing view. Insulting words are used in place of logical arguments, appealing to emotions, rather than reason. In many ways, name-calling is the opposite of the glittering generalities technique, which uses positive words in a similar way. Back to Contents

Part 7: Name-Calling Using the name-calling technique, a propagandist will attack the opposition on a personal level, often appealing to the audience’s preconceptions and prejudices rather than appealing to logic. John is just your average right-wing gun nut. Susan is one of the looniest commies on the left. Back to Contents

Part 7: Name-Calling Direct name-calling is usually used if the target audience is already leaning in favor of the propagandist. For example, if a politician wanted to further discredit an already unpopular opponent, he or she might say: Clearly, my opponent’s bleeding-heart liberalism will not help to solve the current crisis. Back to Contents

Part 7: Name-Calling In indirect name-calling, the propagandist takes a subtler approach, perhaps making sarcastic or tongue-in-cheek remarks about an opponent. Rather than directly calling the opponent a derogatory name, the propagandist may, instead, make the same negative suggestions in a more jovial, less confrontational manner. Back to Contents

Part 7: Name-Calling An example of indirect name-calling:
Although we all have a great deal of respect for Senator Parker, I’m not certain we need to accept his views on marriage without careful scrutiny. After all, he is a confirmed bachelor. In this instance, rather than openly attacking his or her opponent, the propagandist couches critical remarks with polite language and a claim of “respect.” Nevertheless, calling the man a “confirmed bachelor” to invalidate his views on marriage is an example of a subtle approach to name-calling. Back to Contents

Part 7: Name-Calling Name-calling is a popular technique in politics; in fact, two of the most famous political symbols in the United States had their origins in name-calling cartoons. In the 1828 presidential campaign, opponents of the Democratic-Republican Party candidate, Andrew Jackson, called him a “jackass.” Jackson decided to embrace this comment, which was intended as an insult, and view the donkey as a symbol of determination. Back to Contents

Part 7: Name-Calling From there, the strong-willed jackass eventually came to be associated with the Democratic Party in general, especially after political cartoonist Thomas Nast used the image in newspaper cartoons in the late nineteenth century. Back to Contents

Part 7: Name-Calling Similarly, Nast popularized the symbol of the Republican elephant. In a cartoon that appeared in Harper’s Weekly, in 1874, Nast drew a donkey (representing the Democratic Party) clothed in a lion’s skin, scaring away all the animals in the jungle. One of those animals, the elephant, was labeled “The Republican Vote.” Back to Contents

Part 7: Name-Calling While Nast’s intention was probably to suggest that Republicans were slow, plodding, and not open to innovation or change, the Republican Party quickly adopted the elephant as a symbol of strength and dignity. Back to Contents

Part 7: Name-Calling Any time a label is attached to a person in order to discredit that person’s argument, name-calling is being employed. It is always best to disregard insulting language and evaluate an individual or an argument on the basis of facts. Back to Contents

Discussion Topics Discussion Topics
1. What are some examples of name-calling you have seen in advertising, politics, or popular culture? Answers will vary. Back to Contents

Discussion Topics 2. In indirect name-calling, words that are not necessarily negative, in and of themselves, are used to subtly disparage an opponent. List some examples of words that can be used in this way, and describe a possible context in which they would be considered name-calling. Answers will vary. Back to Contents

Discussion Topics 3. What makes name-calling a logical fallacy?
Name-calling is a logical fallacy because it is used to attack not the argument, but the individual delivering it. Back to Contents

Discussion Topics 4. Identify the audience and purpose for this poster, and discuss whether this is an example of name-calling propaganda. Note: President Theodore Roosevelt coined the term “muckrakers” to describe journalists and politicians who were known for exposing social injustices. Back to Contents

Discussion Topics 4. Identify the audience and purpose for this poster, and discuss whether this is an example of name-calling propaganda. Note: President Theodore Roosevelt coined the term “muckrakers” to describe journalists and politicians who were known for exposing social injustices. Aimed at the American public, this editorial cartoon is intended to poke fun at Teddy Roosevelt and the “muckraking” senators with whom he sometimes clashed. By referring to these senators as a “muck heap,” the cartoonist plays on the term “muckrakers.” This is a dismissive treatment of the senators, but the degree to which this qualifies as an instance of name-calling propaganda is open to debate. Back to Contents

Part 8: Pinpointing the Enemy
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Propagandists often oversimplify complex problems by pointing out a single cause or a single enemy who can be blamed. For everything from unemployment to natural disasters, identifying a supposed source of the problem can help the propagandist achieve his or her agenda. Back to Contents

Problems rarely stem from a single cause, but propagandists often benefit from oversimplifying situations. People tend to like clear-cut explanations, and politicians take advantage of this fact by pointing to a single enemy and placing all the blame at his or her feet. Back to Contents

This World War II poster identifies “the enemy” of the United States, giving a human face to the threat of facism. Back to Contents

When the enemy in question is blamed for problems that are actually someone else’s fault, this is a particular category of pinpointing the enemy known as scapegoating. Blaming a scapegoat alleviates the guilt of those who are truly at fault, while providing a convenient explanation for the problem at hand. Back to Contents

This 1854 painting by William Holman Hunt, “The Scapegoat,” illustrates the origins of the term—the ancient Hebrew tradition of driving a goat into the wilderness on Yom Kippur to carry away the people’s sins. Back to Contents

Pinpointing the enemy works particularly well when the targeted group is already thought of as “the other.” An example of this phenomenon is the Nazi portrayal of the Jewish people as the source of economic problems in Germany. People who are easy to recognize by appearance or culture make perfect scapegoats; if they are easy to identify, they are easy to blame. Back to Contents

It’s important to remember that cruel dictators are not the only propagandists who make use of this technique. For example, social and environmental activists often use the same technique to garner support for their causes. The big oil companies have stifled all talk of alternative energy sources for decades. Back to Contents

Listening to the full story, in all its detail, can be overwhelming, leading people to become apathetic. Effective propaganda, therefore, will often define a complicated issue as having a single cause—and, often, a single enemy. Example: Uncontrolled fishing by greedy commercial fishers has reduced the numbers of some fish to one-tenth of their original population. Back to Contents

When presented in their entirety, our obstacles may seem insurmountable. Often, all we really want to know is, “Who’s to blame?” Of course, the propagandist is only too willing to provide an answer to this question. McDougal’s Burgers are responsible for the obesity epidemic in America. Back to Contents

Frequently, a single company will also be targeted, while others that may have similar or even worse practices go untouched. Companies such as Wal-Mart and Starbucks have served as scapegoats for many economic problems over the years. Megamart is responsible for the destruction of small businesses throughout the country. Back to Contents

Most issues that confront us are complex, from the environment to the economy to international relations. Nevertheless, people are often eager to accept a simple answer to a complicated question. The technique of pinpointing an enemy can make overwhelming problems seem quite simple and easy to solve. Remember that the propagandist’s message is always based on faulty logic. Arguments that pinpoint a single enemy are often faulty because “the enemy” they identify is really only part of the problem. Back to Contents

1. How is pinpointing the enemy similar to name-calling? How are the two techniques different? Both techniques are frequently used to attack an individual. However, pinpointing the enemy is often used to assign blame, while name-calling is usually used to discredit an opponent. Back to Contents

Discussion Topics 2. Identify an instance of pinpointing the enemy that you have witnessed in the media. What companies, groups, or individuals have been blamed for many of the world’s problems? Answers will vary. Back to Contents

Discussion Topics 3. How is pinpointing the enemy related to “scapegoating,” and the ancient Hebrew practice of driving a goat into the wilderness to take away the people’s sins? Scapegoating is a particular kind of pinpointing, in which the scapegoat is blamed for the propagandist’s own failings. As in the Hebrew tradition, the scapegoat is forced to bear the moral failures of others. Back to Contents

Discussion Topics 4. Identify the audience and purpose for this poster, and discuss whether this is an example of pinpointing the enemy. Note: The term “Hun” was used to refer to the Germans during World War I. Back to Contents

Discussion Topics 4. Identify the audience and purpose for this poster, and discuss whether this is an example of pinpointing the enemy. Note: The term “Hun” was used to refer to the Germans during World War I. Aimed at an American audience during World War I, this cartoon is meant to disparage the German government and the practice of producing and drinking alcohol. This can be considered an example of name-calling propaganda because of the use of the term “Hun” and because it depicts the German public as wasteful, poor, alcohol-loving criminals, rather than arguing against the nation’s government. Back to Contents

Part 9: Plain Folk Back to Contents

Part 9: Plain Folk People tend to distrust those they perceive as outsiders, and the plain-folk technique takes advantage of this instinct. In this approach, the propagandist makes him or herself appear more like an “insider” in order to gain the public’s confidence. Back to Contents

Part 9: Plain Folk In this poster from George McGovern’s 1972 presidential campaign, the senator’s face blends in among the smiles of “plain folk” of various ages, ethnicities, and professions. Back to Contents

Part 9: Plain Folk The plain-folk technique can perhaps be seen most strikingly in political candidates. Politicians often compete to be seen as more “normal” than their opponents. Politicians often attempt to appear more like the average citizen by manipulating the way they dress or the way they speak. Back to Contents

Part 9: Plain Folk Common techniques include:
using colloquial phrases or dialects expressing emotion or sentimentality using words such as “home,” “children,” or “dinner table” that evoke the idea of the average family taking on an appearance of shyness, or a seeming reluctance to take the spotlight or a position of leadership Back to Contents

Part 9: Plain Folk Examples from real life:
1. Former President Bill Clinton ate at McDonald’s, played the saxophone on a late-night talk show, and admitted he enjoyed “trashy spy novels.” 2. Former President Ronald Reagan was often photographed chopping wood. 3. Former President James Carter insisted on being sworn into office as “Jimmy.” Using the same logic, candidates will often attack the credibility of their opponents by labeling them “Washington insiders” or “elitists.” Back to Contents

1. What are some examples of plain-folk propaganda that you have seen in advertising? What product lines have used this technique, and how? Answers will vary. Back to Contents

Discussion Topics 2. What kinds of advertisements and/or political campaigns would not benefit from using the plain-folk approach? Under what circumstances would this technique be counterproductive? Products or politicians who appeal to an elite audience would not benefit from using the plain-folks technique. Likewise, an individual or product that could not make a realistic claim to being ordinary and common should not use this approach. Back to Contents

Discussion Topics 3. Read the following quote. Then, describe one situation in which this quote would constitute plain-folk propaganda and another scenario in which it would not. I grew up on a farm in rural Mississippi, so I know the meaning of struggle. I learned the value of hard work and determination at an early age, and it’s a lesson I won’t soon forget. This quote would constitute plain-folk propaganda if delivered by a public figure, such as a politician, in an attempt at self-promotion. However, if spoken by a grandfather to his grandchildren, for example, this would not be an instance of propaganda. Back to Contents

Discussion Topics 4. Imagine that you are running for office, and create a speech in which you promote yourself using plain-folk propaganda. Answers will vary. Back to Contents

Part 10: Testimonials Back to Contents

Part 10: Testimonials Testimonials are a form of propaganda that is familiar to nearly everyone. Almost everything that is advertised comes with some sort of testimonial, from music to hair gel to politicians. Testimonials take advantage of the fact that there are certain people we tend to trust—even if that trust is based on mere recognition, rather than true credibility. An Olympic gold medalist claims that she eats Golden Flakes every morning. Back to Contents

Part 10: Testimonials Most testimonials—both in politics and in advertising—are made by famous people. You may read that an actor you admire supports a certain political candidate. You may hear that a singer you like uses a certain cell phone. You may watch a commercial in which a popular athlete advises you to buy a certain pair of shoes. Every day, we are flooded with endorsements from famous people, encouraging us to buy, use, and vote for the same things they do. Back to Contents

Part 10: Testimonials Movie stars and models are often paid to give testimonials in which they attribute their beauty or success to a given product. Back to Contents

Part 10: Testimonials Propagandists use testimonials because they expect that your feelings toward the famous person will transfer to the product or cause he or she is endorsing. The propagandist hopes to make you commit a serious error of judgment, placing trust in a person who has not proved his or her credibility and who has probably been paid for the endorsement. Back to Contents

Part 10: Testimonials For instance, a person may love Sean Penn’s movies and even agree with some of his political views, but that does not qualify him to pick out the ideal presidential candidate. Likewise, a basketball player might be able to dunk the ball with ease, but that doesn’t mean he has extraordinary knowledge about batteries—the brand he uses has nothing to do with his success. Back to Contents

Part 10: Testimonials In this World War II poster, the familiar face of heavyweight champion boxer Joe Louis encourages Americans to contribute to the war effort. Back to Contents

Part 10: Testimonials To avoid being deceived in by this form of manipulation, it is best to first examine why the celebrity in question is admired. Is it because of his or her physical appearance? acting ability? musical talent? athletic skill? Then, determine whether these traits qualify the individual to advise people on the subject at hand. Back to Contents

Part 10: Testimonials Example:
A famous 1980s television commercial featured an actor who played a doctor on a long-running television show. In the commercial, wearing a white lab coat and stethoscope, he would say to the audience, “I’m not really a doctor, but I play one on TV.” He would then extol the benefits of a certain over-the-counter medication. In this commercial, the advertisers attempted to capitalize on the audience’s mental association between the actor and the medical profession. Back to Contents

Part 10: Testimonials In ordinary life, there are many situations in which we can place some level of trust in testimonials. You should be able to trust your accountant to give you good advice about your taxes. Likewise, it should be safe to believe your neighbor’s testimony about the camera she bought last year. Most likely, neither of these people has anything to gain by misleading you. Back to Contents

Part 10: Testimonials Remember, in order to constitute propaganda, a testimonial must have the following traits: persuasive function sizeable target audience representation of a specific group’s agenda use of faulty reasoning and/or emotional appeals Back to Contents

Part 10: Testimonials The key to recognizing testimonial-based propaganda is to investigate the possible ulterior motives of the person giving the testimonial. As a rule, the celebrity or “expert” witness will be compensated for his or her testimony. While you may be able to trust your own doctor’s testimonial, there may be doctors who recommend certain medications simply because they are paid by the pharmaceutical company. Back to Contents

Part 10: Testimonials In fact, if an actual medical doctor appears in a television or print ad or in a late-night “infomercial,” you can be certain that he or she is receiving some form of compensation for the testimonial. Back to Contents

Part 10: Testimonials Many people are aware of the dishonesty of this approach and are leery of paid celebrity or “expert” endorsements. As a result, many advertisers and political campaign managers take a different approach—the “plain-folk testimonial.” In this type of endorsement, the testimony comes not from a famous actor, athlete, or scientist, who is obviously being compensated, but from an average-looking person, who may claim to be a student, homemaker, or taxi driver. Back to Contents

Part 10: Testimonials Example #1:
A commercial for a particular brand of mattresses features not only its famous spokesperson, but also a number of “real people” who claim to sleep better since purchasing this product. Example #2: The promoters of a popular over-the-counter weight loss product feature “before and after” photographs of ordinary people, in addition to a few famous spokespeople who have successfully lost weight using this product. Back to Contents

Part 10: Testimonials Testimonial propaganda is also found frequently in politics. Politicians line up to support a bill and ask us to take their word for it, rather than having us investigate the issue ourselves. Doctors, sports figures, people in the entertainment business, and other famous people are frequently quoted as supporting a wide range of medications, products, and services, some of which are good for you and some of which are not. Politicians often expect voters to join them in supporting legislation that the public knows very little about. Back to Contents

Part 10: Testimonials We are surrounded by “experts,” all with their own opinions and recommendations. However, testimonials are dangerous only when you are being asked to trust someone who has a vested interest in a certain outcome, or someone who has no expertise in the subject at hand. Back to Contents

1. What qualifies a person to give a trustworthy, legitimate testimonial? A person with some degree of true expertise who is unbiased and uncompensated may be considered a trustworthy source for a testimonial. Back to Contents

Discussion Topics 2. What are some of the warning signs that cast suspicion on a testimonial? Scripted, paid testimonials delivered by celebrities, experts, or even “plain folk” should be viewed with suspicion. Back to Contents

Discussion Topics 3. Imagine that you are an advertiser, attempting to market a product How would you go about using the testimonial technique in a way that appears trustworthy? Answers will vary. Back to Contents

Discussion Topics 4. Identify the audience and purpose for this poster, and discuss whether this is an example of testimonial-based propaganda. Back to Contents

Discussion Topics 4. Identify the audience and purpose for this poster, and discuss whether this is an example of testimonial-based propaganda. Aimed at the American public (during World War II), this poster uses President Franklin Roosevelt’s speech as a testimonial encouraging Americans to save food. Americans were expected to trust Roosevelt enough to believe his assertion that “Hunger does not breed reform…” and save food, based on his suggestion. Back to Contents

Part 11: Transfer Back to Contents

Part 11: Transfer Also known as “association” and “false connection,” transfer is closely related to the testimonial technique. In this method, the propagandist encourages the transfer of feelings and associations from one idea, symbol, or person to another. Back to Contents

Part 11: Transfer Example:
An automobile manufacturer that wants to be known as environmentally friendly films its car being driven through a pristine forest. Friendly forest animals eagerly look on—and do not run away—as the car passes. Example: A candidate for office addresses allegations of wrongdoing in front of a house of worship while wearing a religious symbol on his lapel pin. Back to Contents

Part 11: Transfer Some symbols are fairly straightforward.
The Democratic Donkey and the Republican Elephant represent the ideologies of their respective parties. The symbol of the skull and crossbones warns the viewer of danger or calls to mind the violent pillaging of a pirate raid. A dove signals peace. Back to Contents

Part 11: Transfer Some symbols will mean one thing to one person and quite the opposite to another person. The propagandist’s challenge is to use symbols that are appropriate to his or her audience. Example: The American flag is meant to evoke positive feelings and ideas; it stands for freedom, courage, and equality. However, in a nation at war with the United States, citizens might attach resentment to the stars and stripes. Back to Contents

Part 11: Transfer In this image, directed at the American public, President Franklin Roosevelt attempts to transfer the trust and respect associated with the American flag to himself and his administration. Back to Contents

Part 11: Transfer The history of the swastika illustrates just how controversial and ambiguous a symbol can be. Although it is best known in the West as the symbol of Hitler’s Nazi party, the swastika originated in the region of modern-day India as a symbol of well-being and good fortune. In much of the world, this symbol of prosperity has become a symbol of evil. Back to Contents

Part 11: Transfer In this image, the once-benign swastika represents evil itself. The feelings of fear and anger associated with the Nazi Party are evoked by this simple symbol. Back to Contents

Part 11: Transfer So far, we have discussed the American flag and the swastika. However, there are many different kinds of symbols. For example, a symbol often seen in advertising is the white lab coat, commonly associated with knowledge and science. Back to Contents

Part 11: Transfer Advertisers or public relations directors who are trying to gain your trust may have their spokesperson wear a white lab coat. The spokesperson need not be a scientist, but the positive associations we have with science will likely transfer and bolster our opinion of the product. Back to Contents

Part 11: Transfer Transfer may also be used in ways that are more obvious. The image of a Ku Klux Klan member in a white, peak-hooded robe, blazing torch in hand, has come to instill a sense of fear and disgust in most Americans. Example: A campaign trying to undermine a particular politician might run a negative ad campaign in which images of KKK gatherings are superimposed over images of one of his speeches. Back to Contents

Part 11: Transfer This is another obvious use of the transfer technique. In this World War II poster, the symbols for Japan (left) and Germany (right) appear on clawed hands, grasping at a mother and child. The fear and outrage inspired by these hands is meant to transfer to a sense of outrage against these enemy nations. Back to Contents

Part 11: Transfer There is nothing wrong, of course, with the President of the United States delivering a speech while sitting in the Oval Office, in front of an American flag. Likewise, it is appropriate for a state’s district attorney to hold a press conference on the steps of the state courthouse. The presence of symbols becomes propaganda only when the symbols are intended to send an unspoken message that appeals to the emotions. Back to Contents

1. What is a symbol that most people in your community would view as positive, and what specific associations would this symbol transfer? Answers will vary. Back to Contents

Discussion Topics 2. What is a symbol that would evoke a negative response from your community? What negative associations are attached to this symbol? Answers will vary. Back to Contents

Discussion Topics 3. Describe an instance of transfer that you have witnessed in advertising, politics, or some other public arena, and explain to the class why this qualifies as transfer. Answers will vary. Back to Contents

Discussion Topics 4. Identify the audience and purpose for this poster, and discuss whether this is an example of transfer propaganda. Back to Contents

Discussion Topics 4. Identify the audience and purpose for this poster, and discuss whether this is an example of transfer propaganda. Aimed at the American public (during World War I), this poster is intended to encourage Americans to enlist in the Army. Depicting the familiar figure of “Uncle Sam,” clad in patriotic garb, the poster is meant to transfer the esteem and loyalty inspired by this figure to the Army’s cause. Back to Contents

Conclusion: Identifying Propaganda
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For each of the slides that follow, identify which propaganda technique is represented by the image and description. Back to Contents

Testimonial Conclusion: Identifying Propaganda
relies on the influence of a spokesperson, usually one who is either a celebrity, a supposed expert, or an “Average Joe” Testimonial Back to Contents

Lesser of Two Evils Conclusion: Identifying Propaganda
“This way? Or This way? The new year—crossroads of the future” gives the audience only two options and encourages people to make a decision based on the fear of one outcome, rather than the merits of the other. Lesser of Two Evils Back to Contents

“Greater Germany [Vote] Yes! On April 10”
Conclusion: Identifying Propaganda “Greater Germany [Vote] Yes! On April 10” appeals to peer pressure, recommending a given course of action simply because “everyone is doing it” Bandwagon Back to Contents

Transfer Conclusion: Identifying Propaganda
attempts to create a mental and emotional association between objects or ideas using images, words, or symbols Transfer Back to Contents

Pinpointing the Enemy Conclusion: Identifying Propaganda
attempts to rally the audience against a single, distinct enemy who embodies all the world’s problems Pinpointing the Enemy Back to Contents

Assertion Conclusion: Identifying Propaganda
declares an idea as fact, without explaining or defending it Assertion Back to Contents

Glittering Generalities
Conclusion: Identifying Propaganda relies on vague, positive words to generate enthusiasm Glittering Generalities Back to Contents

Plain Folks Conclusion: Identifying Propaganda
encourages an audience to identify an individual or cause with common people and ordinary tasks Plain Folks Back to Contents

“Victory or Bolshevism”
Conclusion: Identifying Propaganda “Victory or Bolshevism” creates a false sense that there are only two possibilities False Dilemma Back to Contents

Name-Calling Conclusion: Identifying Propaganda
uses strong language to excite anger and vilify an individual or group of people Name-Calling Back to Contents

“The nation’s dreams have come true!”
Conclusion: Identifying Propaganda “The nation’s dreams have come true!” a message that presents only one side of the situation or unfairly downplays other possibilities Card-Stacking Back to Contents

In the preceding slides, we’ve looked at eleven of the most popular techniques of propaganda, with examples that ranged from advertising slogans to wartime recruitment posters. Now that you are able to identify these eleven approaches to propaganda, you should be able to recognize uses of these techniques in many of the messages that are presented to you on a daily basis. As you read the newspaper, drive by a billboard, or surf the Internet, remember to think critically about who is producing the messages you’re exposed to, what their motives may be, and what logic their messages employ. Back to Contents

Repeat Exercises The following exercises are repeated from the previous sections Back to Contents

What is Propaganda? Repeat Exercises
1. What are some potential sources of propaganda in the modern world? Sources include commercials, billboards, print ads (catalogues, magazines, direct mail, etc.), and political campaigns, among many others. Back to Contents

Repeat Exercises 2. In order to qualify as propaganda, a message must meet the following criteria: persuasive function sizeable target audience representation of a specific group’s agenda use of faulty reasoning and/or emotional appeals Describe an example of a message that would meet all but one of the above criteria. Explain your answer. Back to Contents

Repeat Exercises (Question #2 continued)
Describe an example of a message that would meet all but one of the above criteria. Explain your answer. Example: A high school assembly called to discuss the dangers of drunk driving may meet the following criteria: 1) persuasive function (persuading students not to drive drunk), 2) sizeable target audience (the entire high school), 3) representation of a specific group’s agenda (the school board’s desire to protect the school’s image). Nevertheless, the argument against drunk driving may be based on sound reasoning and facts, rather than emotional appeals and logical fallacies. Back to Contents

Repeat Exercises 3. Identify an example of propaganda you have recently been exposed to, and explain to the class why this message constitutes propaganda. Answer will vary. Back to Contents

Part #1: Assertion Repeat Exercises
1. What makes a statement an example of “assertion” propaganda? In addition to meeting all the criteria of propaganda, a statement must present a debatable idea as a fact without explaining or justifying the claim in order to constitute assertion propaganda. Back to Contents

Repeat Exercises 2. Describe an example of an assertion you have seen in politics or advertising. Do you think that this claim has affected your point of view? Explain your reaction. Answer will vary. Back to Contents

Repeat Exercises 3. Identify which of the following assertions qualify as propaganda, and explain your answer. Modify those that are not propaganda to make them fit the four criteria. A. Parent to child: “If you eat your vegetables, you’ll grow up to be big and strong.” Must be modified to target a larger audience. Back to Contents

Repeat Exercises (Discussion Topic #3 continued)
B. Billboard: “Mario’s Pizza, Next Exit.” This is merely a statement of fact. Must be modified to make an unjustified claim about the restaurant (e.g., “Mario’s Pizza: The Best Pizza in the World”). C. Magazine ad for “age-defying” makeup: “True Beauty is Ageless.” Propaganda. This is an unjustified assertion, made to a large audience, that appeals to the viewers’ feelings in order to advance the advertiser’s agenda. Back to Contents

D. Commercial: “According to a study by the National Heart Association, eating this cereal, as part of a balanced breakfast, may reduce the risk of heart disease.” This is merely a statement of facts, and must be modified to make an unjustified claim about the cereal (e.g., “eating this cereal will reduce your risk of heart disease”). E. Political commentator: “Richard Williams obviously doesn’t have the experience it takes to be President of the United States.” Propaganda—assuming this statement is not explained with a logical argument. Back to Contents

Repeat Exercises 4. Identify the audience and purpose for this poster, and discuss whether this is an example of assertion propaganda. Back to Contents

4. Identify the audience and purpose for this poster, and discuss whether this is an example of assertion propaganda. Aimed at an American audience (during World War II), this poster was intended to dissuade citizens from discussing military affairs. This slogan can be considered an example of assertion propaganda; however, the qualifier “might” opens this question to debate. If students emphasize the use of “might” in the poster, they can argue that this is a reasonable claim. Back to Contents

Part #2: Bandwagon Repeat Exercises
1. What makes the bandwagon technique appealing to most people? Answers will vary. Back to Contents

Repeat Exercises 2. Identify a decision you have made based primarily on popular opinion. Describe the situation, and explain whether following the majority made sense in that context. Answers will vary. Back to Contents

Repeat Exercises 3. Does the fact that numerous experts agree about a theory constitute logical grounds for accepting it? Why, or why not? Answers will vary. Back to Contents

Repeat Exercises 4. Identify the audience and purpose for this poster, and discuss whether this is an example of bandwagon propaganda. Back to Contents

4. Identify the audience and purpose for this poster, and discuss whether this is an example of bandwagon propaganda. Aimed at the British public (during World War I), this poster was meant to encourage citizens to enlist in the armed services. The phrase “all answer the call” qualifies the poster as an example of bandwagon propaganda. Back to Contents

Part #3: Card Stacking Repeat Exercises
1. Why is it often difficult to distinguish card-stacking propaganda from legitimate arguments? Card stacking is not always easy to recognize as propaganda because it often relies on facts and logic and makes mention of opposing viewpoints. Back to Contents

Repeat Exercises 2. What clues can help you make the distinction between card stacking propaganda and legitimate arguments? If opposing viewpoints are either omitted altogether or unfairly represented, you are probably looking at an example of card stacking. Back to Contents

Repeat Exercises 3. Describe the different forms card stacking takes in print advertisements and television commercials. What kinds of products are often advertised with card-stacking propaganda? In print advertisements, details are often obscured in small print or in inconspicuous colors or fonts. In audiovisual media such as television commercials, these visual techniques of obscuring information are often present, sometimes accompanied by speedy voiceovers detailing drawbacks or disclaimers. Card stacking is often used in advertisements for vehicles, cigarettes, medications, and many other products. Back to Contents

Repeat Exercises 4. Identify the audience and purpose for this advertisement, and discuss whether this is an example of card-stacking propaganda. Back to Contents

4. Identify the audience and purpose for this advertisement, and discuss whether this is an example of card-stacking propaganda. Aimed at the readers of a magazine or comic book, this advertisement is intended to promote a book and a portraiture course. This is not an example of card-stacking propaganda because the words in fine print are not meant to be obscured—they simply describe the less vital information. Back to Contents

Part #4: Glittering Generalities
Repeat Exercises Part #4: Glittering Generalities 1. Glittering generalities are a common part of political campaigns Compose a list of glittering generalities you have heard in campaign slogans, in debates, or in the news media. Answers will vary. Back to Contents

Repeat Exercises 2. Like politicians and journalists, advertisers often use glittering generalities to promote their products. Create a list of glittering generalities that are commonly used in advertising. Answers will vary. Back to Contents

Repeat Exercises 3. Under what conditions are words like “freedom” and “choice” not glittering generalities? Use each word in a sentence that does not qualify as a glittering generality. Words like “freedom” and “choice” often qualify as glittering generalities when they are left to stand alone, with no explanation. However, they are not glittering generalities when they are assigned specific meanings. For example, “freedom” is not a glittering generality when used to describe emancipation from slavery (e.g., “The former slave had earned his freedom through years of hard labor”) Likewise, “choice” is not a glittering generality when it is used to refer to a specific kind of choice (e.g., “She was given the choice to rewrite the paper, but she chose, instead, to accept a failing grade”). Back to Contents

Repeat Exercises 4. Identify the audience and purpose for this poster, and discuss whether, in the context of this poster, Lincoln’s words are being used as glittering generalities. If so, which words stand out as glittering generalities? If not, why not? Back to Contents

4. Identify the audience and purpose for this poster, and discuss whether, in the context of this poster, Lincoln’s words are being used as glittering generalities. If so, which words stand out as glittering generalities? If not, why not? Aimed at the American public (during World War I), this poster was meant to inspire its audience to save food. Lincoln’s words are used as glittering generalities in the context of this poster. Words like “charity,” “just,” and “peace” may sound admirable, but they are given no specific definition within this passage. Back to Contents

Part #5: False Dilemma Repeat Exercises
1. List some examples of false-dilemma arguments you have heard in real life. Answers will vary. Back to Contents

Repeat Exercises 2. What are some of the clues that can help you distinguish a false dilemma from a legitimate presentation of facts? In a false-dilemma argument, a limited number of possibilities are presented, one of which is depicted in a far more favorable light than the others. In a legitimate presentation of facts, by contrast, a wider variety of options will be introduced, and each will be evaluated in an unbiased manner. Back to Contents

Repeat Exercises 3. Following the examples provided in this section, create a false dilemma argument to fit each of the following scenarios. (Hint: False dilemmas often take the form of “either/or” assertions.) • encourage recycling • endorse a political candidate • support a tax increase Answers will vary. Back to Contents

Repeat Exercises 4. Identify the audience and purpose for this poster, and discuss whether this is an example of false-dilemma propaganda. Back to Contents

4. Identify the audience and purpose for this poster, and discuss whether this is an example of false-dilemma propaganda. Aimed at the American public (during World War I), this poster was meant to encourage people to buy Liberty Bonds. This is an example of a false dilemma because it suggests that if people fail to buy bonds, there will be no liberty left on earth. Back to Contents

Part #6: The Lesser of Two Evils
Repeat Exercises Part #6: The Lesser of Two Evils 1. How is the lesser-of-two-evils technique similar to the false dilemma approach? What sets these techniques apart from one another? Like the lesser-of-two-evils approach, the false dilemma reduces a complex situation to a limited number of possibilities. Unlike the former technique, however, propaganda that uses the lesser-of-two-evils tactic offers two unpleasant alternatives. Back to Contents

Repeat Exercises 2. What are the keys to identifying the lesser-of-two-evils fallacy? In the lesser-of-two-evils fallacy, a limited number of possibilities are presented (usually two). This propaganda technique also encourages you to make a decision based on the fear of one outcome, rather than the merits of the other. Back to Contents

Repeat Exercises 3. The lesser-of-two-evils fallacy is often used to defend the status quo, as exemplified in the familiar idiom, “better the devil you know than the devil you don’t know.” Generate a list of real-life scenarios in which this technique of propaganda is used to preserve the status quo. Answers will vary. Back to Contents

Repeat Exercises 4. Create a caption to go with this image that would make the poster an example of lesser-of-two-evils propaganda. Back to Contents

4. Create a caption to go with this image that would make the poster an example of lesser-of-two-evils propaganda. Examples: 1) You may not want to spend your summer building a fallout shelter, but it’s better than dying of radiation poisoning. 2) Maybe you won’t be able to afford a vacation this year, but that’s a small price to pay for protecting your family against nuclear attacks. 3) It may not be pretty, but it’s better than living in a nuclear wasteland. Back to Contents

Part #7: Name-Calling Repeat Exercises
1. What are some examples of name-calling you have seen in advertising, politics, or popular culture? Answers will vary. Back to Contents

Repeat Exercises 2. In indirect name-calling, words that are not necessarily negative, in and of themselves, are used to subtly disparage an opponent. List some examples of words that can be used in this way, and describe a possible context in which they would be considered name-calling. Answers will vary. Back to Contents

Repeat Exercises 3. What makes name-calling a logical fallacy?
Name-calling is a logical fallacy because it is used to attack not the argument, but the individual delivering it. Back to Contents

Repeat Exercises 4. Identify the audience and purpose for this poster, and discuss whether this is an example of name-calling propaganda. Note: President Theodore Roosevelt coined the term “muckrakers” to describe journalists and politicians who were known for exposing social injustices. Back to Contents

Repeat Exercises 4. Identify the audience and purpose for this poster, and discuss whether this is an example of name-calling propaganda. Note: President Theodore Roosevelt coined the term “muckrakers” to describe journalists and politicians who were known for exposing social injustices. Aimed at the American public, this editorial cartoon is intended to poke fun at Teddy Roosevelt and the “muckraking” senators with whom he sometimes clashed. By referring to these senators as a “muck heap,” the cartoonist plays on the term “muckrakers.” This is a dismissive treatment of the senators, but the degree to which this qualifies as an instance of name-calling propaganda is open to debate. Back to Contents

Part #8: Pinpointing the Enemy
Repeat Exercises Part #8: Pinpointing the Enemy 1. How is pinpointing the enemy similar to name-calling? How are the two techniques different? Both techniques are frequently used to attack an individual. However, pinpointing the enemy is often used to assign blame, while name-calling is usually used to discredit an opponent. Back to Contents

Repeat Exercises 2. Identify an instance of pinpointing the enemy that you have witnessed in the media. What companies, groups, or individuals have been blamed for many of the world’s problems? Answers will vary. Back to Contents

Repeat Exercises 3. How is pinpointing the enemy related to “scapegoating,” and the ancient Hebrew practice of driving a goat into the wilderness to take away the people’s sins? Scapegoating is a particular kind of pinpointing, in which the scapegoat is blamed for the propagandist’s own failings. As in the Hebrew tradition, the scapegoat is forced to bear the moral failures of others. Back to Contents

Repeat Exercises 4. Identify the audience and purpose for this poster, and discuss whether this is an example of pinpointing the enemy. Note: The term “Hun” was used to refer to the Germans during World War I. Back to Contents

Repeat Exercises 4. Identify the audience and purpose for this poster, and discuss whether this is an example of pinpointing the enemy. Note: The term “Hun” was used to refer to the Germans during World War I. Aimed at an American audience during World War I, this cartoon is meant to disparage the German government and the practice of producing and drinking alcohol. This can be considered an example of name-calling propaganda because of the use of the term “Hun” and because it depicts the German public as wasteful, poor, alcohol-loving criminals, rather than arguing against the nation’s government. Back to Contents

Part #9: Plain Folk Repeat Exercises
1. What are some examples of plain-folk propaganda that you have seen in advertising? What product lines have used this technique, and how? Answers will vary. Back to Contents

Repeat Exercises 2. What kinds of advertisements and/or political campaigns would not benefit from using the plain-folk approach? Under what circumstances would this technique be counterproductive? Products or politicians who appeal to an elite audience would not benefit from using the plain-folks technique. Likewise, an individual or product that could not make a realistic claim to being ordinary and common should not use this approach. Back to Contents

Repeat Exercises 3. Read the following quote. Then, describe one situation in which this quote would constitute plain-folk propaganda and another scenario in which it would not. I grew up on a farm in rural Mississippi, so I know the meaning of struggle. I learned the value of hard work and determination at an early age, and it’s a lesson I won’t soon forget. This quote would constitute plain-folk propaganda if delivered by a public figure, such as a politician, in an attempt at self-promotion. However, if spoken by a grandfather to his grandchildren, for example, this would not be an instance of propaganda. Back to Contents

Repeat Exercises 4. Imagine that you are running for office, and create a speech in which you promote yourself using plain-folk propaganda. Answers will vary. Back to Contents

Part #10: Testimonials Repeat Exercises
1. What qualifies a person to give a trustworthy, legitimate testimonial? A person with some degree of true expertise who is unbiased and uncompensated may be considered a trustworthy source for a testimonial. Back to Contents

Repeat Exercises 2. What are some of the warning signs that cast suspicion on a testimonial? Scripted, paid testimonials delivered by celebrities, experts, or even “plain folk” should be viewed with suspicion. Back to Contents

Repeat Exercises 3. Imagine that you are an advertiser, attempting to market a product How would you go about using the testimonial technique in a way that appears trustworthy? Answers will vary. Back to Contents

Repeat Exercises 4. Identify the audience and purpose for this poster, and discuss whether this is an example of testimonial-based propaganda. Back to Contents

Repeat Exercises 4. Identify the audience and purpose for this poster, and discuss whether this is an example of testimonial-based propaganda. Aimed at the American public (during World War II), this poster uses President Franklin Roosevelt’s speech as a testimonial encouraging Americans to save food. Americans were expected to trust Roosevelt enough to believe his assertion that “Hunger does not breed reform…” and save food, based on his suggestion. Back to Contents

Part #11: Transfer Repeat Exercises
1. What is a symbol that most people in your community would view as positive, and what specific associations would this symbol transfer? Answers will vary. Back to Contents

Repeat Exercises 2. What is a symbol that would evoke a negative response from your community? What negative associations are attached to this symbol? Answers will vary. Back to Contents

Repeat Exercises 3. Describe an instance of transfer that you have witnessed in advertising, politics, or some other public arena, and explain to the class why this qualifies as transfer. Answers will vary. Back to Contents

Repeat Exercises 4. Identify the audience and purpose for this poster, and discuss whether this is an example of transfer propaganda. Back to Contents

Repeat Exercises 4. Identify the audience and purpose for this poster, and discuss whether this is an example of transfer propaganda. Aimed at the American public (during World War I), this poster is intended to encourage Americans to enlist in the Army. Depicting the familiar figure of “Uncle Sam,” clad in patriotic garb, the poster is meant to transfer the esteem and loyalty inspired by this figure to the Army’s cause. Back to Contents

Testimonial Repeat Exercises
relies on the influence of a spokesperson, usually one who is either a celebrity, a supposed expert, or an “Average Joe” Testimonial Back to Contents

Lesser of Two Evils Repeat Exercises
This way? Or This way? The new year—crossroads of the future gives the audience only two options and encourages people to make a decision based on the fear of one outcome, rather than the merits of the other. Lesser of Two Evils Back to Contents

Greater Germany [Vote] Yes! On April 10
Repeat Exercises Greater Germany [Vote] Yes! On April 10 appeals to peer pressure, recommending a given course of action simply because “everyone is doing it” Bandwagon Back to Contents

Transfer Repeat Exercises
attempts to create a mental and emotional association between objects or ideas using images, words, or symbols Transfer Back to Contents

Pinpointing the Enemy Repeat Exercises
attempts to rally the audience against a single, distinct enemy who embodies all the world’s problems Pinpointing the Enemy Back to Contents

Assertion Repeat Exercises
declares an idea as fact, without explaining or defending it Assertion Back to Contents

Glittering Generalities
Repeat Exercises relies on vague, positive words to generate enthusiasm Glittering Generalities Back to Contents

Plain Folks Repeat Exercises
encourages an audience to identify an individual or cause with common people and ordinary tasks Plain Folks Back to Contents

False Dilemma Repeat Exercises
Victory or Bolshevism creates a false sense that there are only two possibilities False Dilemma Back to Contents

Name-Calling Repeat Exercises
uses strong language to excite anger and vilify an individual or group of people Name-Calling Back to Contents

The nation’s dreams have come true!
Repeat Exercises The nation’s dreams have come true! a message that presents only one side of the situation or unfairly downplays other possibilities Card-Stacking Back to Contents

Part 7: Name-Calling Back to Contents.

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Part 7: Name-Calling Back to Contents.

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