1. Organic Chemistry

2. Organic ~ once alive or part of a living thing, carbon containing.
Biosynthesis ~ the putting together of substances by living things.

3. Carbon is Essential
Symbol
Element
Abundance in human body (% weight O
Oxygen 65 C
Carbon 18 H
Hydrogen 10 N
Nitrogen 3 Ca
Calcium 2
Carbon has 4 valence electrons, so it can form bonds with up to 4 other atoms.
Often a carbon atom will form rings or chains with other carbon atoms, which form the backbone of most organic molecules.
A Carbon atom can form double or even triple bonds with another carbon atom.

5. Functions of organic compounds:
Structural ~ building blocks of a cellular or extracellular structure
Enzymatic ~ are enzymes or help enzymes perform their functions.
Storage ~ Can store:
Energy
Substances
Information for future use
*Many organic compounds perform combinations of these functions.
Four Main Groups of Organic Compounds:
1. Carbohydrates
2. Lipids
3. Proteins
4. Nucleic acids
*They are often called macromolecules because of their large size

6. The building blocks are called monomers
Monomers and Polymers
They are also called polymers because each class is made from identical building blocks strung together
The building blocks are called monomers
Monosaccharides - Carbohydrates
Amino Acids - Proteins
Nucleotides - Nucleic Acids

7. Synthesis ~ process that forms a new substance
Dehydration/Condensation and Hydrolysis Reactions
(Making and Breaking Polymers)
Monomers are linked together to form polymers through dehydration synthesis aka condensation reactions, which remove water
Synthesis ~ process that forms a new substance
Polymers are broken apart by hydrolysis, the addition of water

8. Unlinked monomer Short polymer Figure 3.3A_s1
Figure 3.3A_s1 Dehydration reaction building a polymer chain (step 1) 8

9. Dehydration reaction forms a new bond
Figure 3.3A_s2
Unlinked monomer
Short polymer
Dehydration reaction forms a new bond
Figure 3.3A_s2 Dehydration reaction building a polymer chain (step 2)
Longer polymer 9

10. Figure 3.3B_s1
Figure 3.3B_s1 Hydrolysis breaking down a polymer (step 1) 10

11. Hydrolysis breaks a bond
Figure 3.3B_s2
Hydrolysis breaks a bond
Figure 3.3B_s2 Hydrolysis breaking down a polymer (step 2) 11

12. Glucose Glucose Figure 3.5_s1
Figure 3.5_s1 Disaccharide formation by a dehydration reaction (step 1) 12

13. Glucose Glucose Maltose
Figure 3.5_s2
Glucose
Glucose
Figure 3.5_s2 Disaccharide formation by a dehydration reaction (step 2)
Maltose 13

15. Carbohydrates
Organic compounds that only contain Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen.
Carbohydrates are structural and energy storage compounds
Types of Carbohydrates
1) Monosaccharides ~ simple sugars that are the basic units of carbohydrates. May contain as few as 3 carbons, but the 5 or 6 carbon monosaccharides are important building blocks of other organic compounds.
Monosaccharides have a 1 carbon : 2 hydrogen : 1 oxygen ratio.
Ribose ~ common 5 carbon monosaccharide
Glucose, galactose and fructose ~ common 6 carbon monosaccharides

16. Carbohydrates
2. Disaccharide ~ two monosaccharides joined together by enzymes
Sucrose, maltose, and lactose ~ common disaccharides.
Sucrose is table sugar.
Many people are lactose intolerant because their bodies don’t produce lactase, which is an enzyme needed to break down lactose.
3. Polysaccharide ~ large molecule made of many monosaccharides.
Four Important Polysaccharides:
Starch ~ used for energy storage for plants; major source of energy for animals.
Glycogen ~ starches from plants are broken down and made into glycogen for temporary storage in animals
Cellulose ~ chains of glucose molecules found in plant cell walls; structural; large molecules that most animals can’t digest.
Chitin ~ strong, insoluble yet very flexible, similar to cellulose. One of the most abundant polysaccharides in nature, makes up the exoskeletons of arthropods (insects, crustaceans, spiders); structural

17. Starch granules in potato tuber cells Starch
Figure 3.7
Starch granules in potato tuber cells
Starch
Glucose monomer
Glycogen granules in muscle tissue
Glycogen
Cellulose microfibrils in a plant cell wall
Cellulose
Figure 3.7 Polysaccharides
Hydrogen bonds
Cellulose molecules 17

18. Lipids

19. Lipids
Group of organic substances which are only slightly soluble in water but are very soluble in organic solvents.
Lipids function in structure and energy storage (just like carbohydrates).
A gram of lipid contains much more potential energy than does a gram of carbohydrates.
1. Fatty acids ~ the most abundant lipids, are unbranched chains of 14 to 28 carbon atoms that have a carboxyl group (COOH) added to one end.
Hydrophilic ~ attracted to water (ex: carboxyl end of fatty acid)
Hydrophobic ~ repelled by water (the opposite end of a fatty acid)
*Fatty acids can be broken into many 2-carbon molecules pieces, which may release useable energy, which makes them a good energy source.

20. Lipids 2) Triglycerides
Triglycerides ~ the body’s most abundant type of lipid
Triglycerides are formed by 3 fatty acid molecules bonded to 3 carbons in a molecule of glycerol. (dehydration synthesis)
Glycerol (glycerin) is a 3 carbon alcohol.

21. Saturated or Unsaturated
Some fatty acids contain one or more double bonds, forming unsaturated fatty acids that
have one fewer hydrogen atom on each carbon of the double bond,
cause kinks or bends in the carbon chain, and
prevent them from packing together tightly and solidifying at room temperature.
Oils ~ lipids that are liquid at room temperature, are unsaturated fatty acids.
Student Misconceptions and Concerns
1. Students may struggle with the concept that a pound of fat contains more than twice the calories of a pound of sugar. It might seem that a pound of food would potentially add on a pound of weight. Other students may have never understood the concept of calories in the diet, simply following general guidelines of avoiding fatty foods. Furthermore, fiber and water have no caloric value but add to the weight of food. Consider class discussions that explore student misconceptions about calories, body weight, and healthy diets.
2. Students might struggle to extrapolate the properties of lipids to their roles in an organism. Ducks float because their feathers repel water instead of attracting it. Hair on our heads remains flexible because of oils produced in our scalp. Examples such as these help connect the abstract properties of lipids to concrete examples in our world.
Teaching Tips
1. The text in Module 3.8 notes the common observation that vinegar and oil do not mix in this type of salad dressing. A simple demonstration can help make this point. In front of the class, mix together colored water and a yellow oil (corn or canola oil work well). Shake up the mixture and then watch as the two separate. (You may have a mixture already made ahead of time that remains separated; however, the dye may bleed between the oil and the water.) Placing the mixture on an overhead projector or other well-illuminated imaging device makes for a dramatic display of hydrophobic activity!
2. The text notes that a gram of fat stores more than twice the energy of a gram of polysaccharide, such as starch. You might elaborate with a simple calculation to demonstrate how a person’s body weight would vary if the energy stored in body fat were stored in carbohydrates instead. If a 100-kg man carried 25% body fat, he would have 25 kg of fat in his body. Fat stores about 2.25 times more energy per gram than carbohydrate. What would be the weight of the man if he stored the energy in the fat in the form of carbohydrate? (2.25 x 25 = kg of carbohydrate + 75kg (nonfat body weight) = kg, an increase of 31.25%)
3. Margarine in stores commonly comes in liquid squeeze containers, in tubs, and in sticks. These forms reflect increasing amounts of hydrogenation, gradually increasing the stiffness from a liquid, to a firmer spread, to a firm stick of margarine. As noted in the text, recent studies have suggested that unsaturated oils become increasingly unhealthy as they are hydrogenated. Students might therefore remember that as margarine products increase in stiffness, they generally become less healthy. Public attention to hydrogenation and the health risks of the resulting trans fats are causing changes in the use of products containing trans fats.
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 21

22. Saturated or Unsaturated
Fats with the maximum number of hydrogens are called saturated fatty acids.
Butter and lard are saturated fats
Student Misconceptions and Concerns
1. Students may struggle with the concept that a pound of fat contains more than twice the calories of a pound of sugar. It might seem that a pound of food would potentially add on a pound of weight. Other students may have never understood the concept of calories in the diet, simply following general guidelines of avoiding fatty foods. Furthermore, fiber and water have no caloric value but add to the weight of food. Consider class discussions that explore student misconceptions about calories, body weight, and healthy diets.
2. Students might struggle to extrapolate the properties of lipids to their roles in an organism. Ducks float because their feathers repel water instead of attracting it. Hair on our heads remains flexible because of oils produced in our scalp. Examples such as these help connect the abstract properties of lipids to concrete examples in our world.
Teaching Tips
1. The text in Module 3.8 notes the common observation that vinegar and oil do not mix in this type of salad dressing. A simple demonstration can help make this point. In front of the class, mix together colored water and a yellow oil (corn or canola oil work well). Shake up the mixture and then watch as the two separate. (You may have a mixture already made ahead of time that remains separated; however, the dye may bleed between the oil and the water.) Placing the mixture on an overhead projector or other well-illuminated imaging device makes for a dramatic display of hydrophobic activity!
2. The text notes that a gram of fat stores more than twice the energy of a gram of polysaccharide, such as starch. You might elaborate with a simple calculation to demonstrate how a person’s body weight would vary if the energy stored in body fat were stored in carbohydrates instead. If a 100-kg man carried 25% body fat, he would have 25 kg of fat in his body. Fat stores about 2.25 times more energy per gram than carbohydrate. What would be the weight of the man if he stored the energy in the fat in the form of carbohydrate? (2.25 x 25 = kg of carbohydrate + 75kg (nonfat body weight) = kg, an increase of 31.25%)
3. Margarine in stores commonly comes in liquid squeeze containers, in tubs, and in sticks. These forms reflect increasing amounts of hydrogenation, gradually increasing the stiffness from a liquid, to a firmer spread, to a firm stick of margarine. As noted in the text, recent studies have suggested that unsaturated oils become increasingly unhealthy as they are hydrogenated. Students might therefore remember that as margarine products increase in stiffness, they generally become less healthy. Public attention to hydrogenation and the health risks of the resulting trans fats are causing changes in the use of products containing trans fats. 22

23. This hydrogenation creates trans fats associated with health risks.
Hydrogenated vegetable oils are unsaturated fats that have been converted to saturated fats by adding hydrogen.
This hydrogenation creates trans fats associated with health risks.
Student Misconceptions and Concerns
1. Students may struggle with the concept that a pound of fat contains more than twice the calories of a pound of sugar. It might seem that a pound of food would potentially add on a pound of weight. Other students may have never understood the concept of calories in the diet, simply following general guidelines of avoiding fatty foods. Furthermore, fiber and water have no caloric value but add to the weight of food. Consider class discussions that explore student misconceptions about calories, body weight, and healthy diets.
2. Students might struggle to extrapolate the properties of lipids to their roles in an organism. Ducks float because their feathers repel water instead of attracting it. Hair on our heads remains flexible because of oils produced in our scalp. Examples such as these help connect the abstract properties of lipids to concrete examples in our world.
Teaching Tips
1. The text in Module 3.8 notes the common observation that vinegar and oil do not mix in this type of salad dressing. A simple demonstration can help make this point. In front of the class, mix together colored water and a yellow oil (corn or canola oil work well). Shake up the mixture and then watch as the two separate. (You may have a mixture already made ahead of time that remains separated; however, the dye may bleed between the oil and the water.) Placing the mixture on an overhead projector or other well-illuminated imaging device makes for a dramatic display of hydrophobic activity!
2. The text notes that a gram of fat stores more than twice the energy of a gram of polysaccharide, such as starch. You might elaborate with a simple calculation to demonstrate how a person’s body weight would vary if the energy stored in body fat were stored in carbohydrates instead. If a 100-kg man carried 25% body fat, he would have 25 kg of fat in his body. Fat stores about 2.25 times more energy per gram than carbohydrate. What would be the weight of the man if he stored the energy in the fat in the form of carbohydrate? (2.25 x 25 = kg of carbohydrate + 75kg (nonfat body weight) = kg, an increase of 31.25%)
3. Margarine in stores commonly comes in liquid squeeze containers, in tubs, and in sticks. These forms reflect increasing amounts of hydrogenation, gradually increasing the stiffness from a liquid, to a firmer spread, to a firm stick of margarine. As noted in the text, recent studies have suggested that unsaturated oils become increasingly unhealthy as they are hydrogenated. Students might therefore remember that as margarine products increase in stiffness, they generally become less healthy. Public attention to hydrogenation and the health risks of the resulting trans fats are causing changes in the use of products containing trans fats.
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 23

25. Lipids 3) Phospholipids structurally similar to fats
Fats contain three fatty acids attached to glycerol.
Phospholipids contain two fatty acids attached to glycerol and a phosphate attached to the other side of the glycerol.
the major component of all cell membranes.
Student Misconceptions and Concerns
Students might struggle to extrapolate the properties of lipids to their roles in an organism. Ducks float because their feathers repel water instead of attracting it. Hair on our heads remains flexible because of oils produced in our scalp. Examples such as these help connect the abstract properties of lipids to concrete examples in our world.
Teaching Tips
Before explaining the properties of a polar molecule such as a phospholipid, have students predict the consequences of adding phospholipids to water. See if the class can generate the two most common configurations: (1) a lipid bilayer encircling water (water surrounding the bilayer and water contained internally) and (2) a micelle (polar heads in contact with water and hydrophobic tails clustered centrally). 25

26. Symbol for phospholipid
Figure 3.9A-B
Phosphate group
Glycerol
Water
Hydrophilic heads
Hydrophobic tails
Symbol for phospholipid
Water
Figure 3.9A-B Detail of a phospholipid membrane 26

27. Phosphate group Glycerol Hydrophilic head Hydrophobic tail Figure 3.9A
Figure 3.9A Chemical structure of a phospholipid molecule 27

28. Phospholipids cluster into a bilayer of phospholipids.
The hydrophilic heads are in contact with
the water of the environment and
the internal part of the cell.
The hydrophobic tails band in the center of the bilayer.
Student Misconceptions and Concerns
Students might struggle to extrapolate the properties of lipids to their roles in an organism. Ducks float because their feathers repel water instead of attracting it. Hair on our heads remains flexible because of oils produced in our scalp. Examples such as these help connect the abstract properties of lipids to concrete examples in our world.
Teaching Tips
Before explaining the properties of a polar molecule such as a phospholipid, have students predict the consequences of adding phospholipids to water. See if the class can generate the two most common configurations: (1) a lipid bilayer encircling water (water surrounding the bilayer and water contained internally) and (2) a micelle (polar heads in contact with water and hydrophobic tails clustered centrally).
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 28

29. Symbol for phospholipid
Figure 3.9B
Water
Hydrophilic head
Hydrophobic tail
Symbol for phospholipid
Figure 3.9B Section of a phospholipid membrane
Water 29

30. Lipids
4. Sterols ~ a lipid composed of four different carbon rings for its backbone and a side chain of carbons. They often combine with other substances to form hormones and other compounds.
Ex: Cholesterol ~ found in the membranes of human and animal cells.