1. Chapter 7 - Memory

2. I. Stages of Memory
memory- is an active system that receives, stores, organizes, alters, and recovers information
1. Information is first encoded (changed into a usable form)
2. Next it is stored (held in the system)
3. Finally, memories are retrieved (taken out of storage) to be useful
to be stored for a long time, information must pass through sensory memory, short-term memory, and long- term memory

3. A. Sensory Memory
1. iconic memories – visual sensory images-typically last for about one-half second
2. when you hear information, sensory memory stores it as an echoic memory for up to 2 seconds

4. B. Short-Term Memory
selective attention controls what information moves on to short-term memory
usually stored phonetically
briefly stores small amounts of information
it is very sensitive to interruption or interference
1. Working Memory-briefly holds the information we need when we are thinking and solving problems

5. C. Long-Term Memory
information that is important or meaningful is transferred to long-term memory
stored on the basis of meaning, not sound
if you can link information currently in STM to knowledge already stored in LTM, it gains meaning

6. II. Short Term Memory limited to the “magic number” 7 A. Chunking
1. information chunks-bits of information grouped into larger units
a. it recodes (reorganizes) information into units that are already in LTM

7. B. Rehearsing Information
1. Maintenance rehearsal, rehearsing information allows you to hear it many times, not just once
2. rote learning-learning by simple repetition
3. elaborative processing- makes information more meaningful; links new information to memories that are already in LTM

8. III. Long-Term Memory A. Permanence
memory experts now believe that long-term memories are only relatively permanent
B. Elaborating False Memories
1. false memory – new information is included in memories and revised
gaps in memory may be filled in by logic, guessing, or new information
it is possible to have memories for things that never happened
our memories are colored by emotions, judgments, and quirks of personality

9. what we remember depends on what we pay attention to, what we regard as meaningful or important, what we feel strongly about

10. C. Organizing Memories
LTM stores huge amounts of information during a lifetime
information may be arranged according to rules, images, categories, symbols, similarity, formal meaning or personal meaning

11. 1. Redintegration
networks of associated memories may also help explain a common experience
can also be touched off by distinctive odors of the past

12. D. Types of Long-Term Memory
1. Procedural memory –skills- includes basic conditioned responses and learned actions, such as those involved in typing, driving or swinging a golf club
can be expressed only as actions
2. Declarative memory –facts- stores specific factual information

13. a. Semantic Memory-the names of objects, the days of the week or months of the year, simple math skills, the seasons, words and language, and other general facts
b. Episodic Memory-an autobiographical record of personal experiences; stores life events
the what, when, and where of our lives

14. IV. Measuring Memory – partial memories are common
tip of the tongue state – the feeling that a memory is available but not quite retrievable
de ja vu is the illusion that you have already experienced a new situation that you are actually seeing for the first time

15. A. Recalling Information
recall- the direct retrieval of facts or information
B. Recognizing Information
recognition memory-previously learned material is correctly identified

16. C. Relearning Information
measured by a savings score (the amount of time you saved when relearning information)
D. Implicit and Explicit Memories
implicit memories lies outside awareness; we are not aware that a memory exists
explicit memories are past experiences that are consciously brought to mind

17. V. Forgetting
most forgetting tends to occur immediately after memorization.
A. When Encoding Fails
we forget because of encoding failure- a memory was never formed in the first place
B. When Memory Storage Fails
memory decay appears to be a factor in the loss of sensory memory, STM
1. Disuse- memories not retrieved and used or rehearsed become weaker over time

18. C. When Retrieval Fails
even if memories are available (stored), you will have to be able to access them (locate) in order to remember
1. Cue-Dependent Forgetting
a. retrieval may fail because memory cues are missing when the time comes to retrieve info
2. State-Dependent Learning-the bodily state that exists during learning can be a strong retrieval cue for later memory

19. 3. Interference- new learning can interfere with the ability to retrieve previous learning
a. retroactive interference-the tendency for new learning to inhibit retrieval of old learning
b. proactive interference-when prior learning inhibits recall of later learning
4. Transfer of Training
a. positive transfer-mastery of one task aids mastery of a second task
b. negative transfer-skills developed in one situation conflict with those required to master a new task

20. 5. Repression and Suppression of Memories
repression-motivated forgetting; painful, threatening, or embarrassing memories are held out of consciousness
suppression-an active, conscious attempt to put something out of mind

21. VI. Memory and the Brain
a head injury may cause a gap in memories preceding an accident- retrograde amnesia; anterograde amnesia involves forgetting events that follow an injury or trauma
A. Memory, Stress and Emotion
1. flashbulb memory-an especially vivid image that seems to be frozen in memory at times of personal tragedy, accident, or other emotionally significant events

22. VII. Exceptional Memory
mental images (pictures) – many memories are stored as mental images
A. Eidetic imagery-when a person has visual images clear enough to be scanned or retained for at least 30 seconds

23. VIII. Improving Memory A. Encoding Strategies
1. Elaborative Processing -Rehearsal-mentally review as you read
2. Selection-selective marking in your texts; marginal notes to summarize ideas
3. Organization-organizing notes
4. Whole vs. Part Learning-it is better to practice whole packages of info rather than smaller parts

24. 5. Serial Position-give extra practice to the middle of a list, poem, speech
6. Cues-stimuli that aid retrieval
7. Overlearning-
8. Spaced Practice-short study sessions with brief rest periods

25. B. Retrieval Strategies
1. Recitation-learning proceeds best when feedback or knowledge of results allows you to check your progress
2. Review-
3. Extend How Long You Remember-gradually lengthen the amount of time that passes before you test yourself again
4. Sleep and Memory-sleeping after study reduces interference
5. Hunger and Memory-people who are hungry almost always score lower on memory tests.