1. The First Great Warlords C. Marius and L. Cornelius Sulla

3. The Paradox of Roman Imperial Success Social and Economic Turbulence in Roman Society Increased Social and Economic Differentiation (insufficient “trickle-down” effect) Increased Social and Economic Differentiation (insufficient “trickle-down” effect) State-Subsidized Grain for the Populace of Rome (seen as a radical, demagogic maneuver on the part of individual Roman statesmen in the historiography of the earlier Republic) State-Subsidized Grain for the Populace of Rome (seen as a radical, demagogic maneuver on the part of individual Roman statesmen in the historiography of the earlier Republic) New Magnificence in Public Buildings, Games, and Triumphs New Magnificence in Public Buildings, Games, and Triumphs Electoral Bribery (ambitus) and Legislation Against It Electoral Bribery (ambitus) and Legislation Against It Sumptuary Legislation Sumptuary Legislation

4. Keith Hopkins’ Analysis Conquerors and Slaves Continuous Warfare Continuous Warfare Influx of Booty Influx of Booty Investment in Land Investment in Land Formation of Large Estates Formation of Large Estates Impoverishment of Peasantry Impoverishment of Peasantry Emigration to Towns and Provinces Emigration to Towns and Provinces Growth of Urban Markets Growth of Urban Markets

6. The Problem Assidui and Property Qualification for Eligibility for Military Service

7. The Gracchan Challenge Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus Gaius Sempronius Gracchus Gaius Sempronius Gracchus Aristocratic Background Aristocratic Background  Father T. Sempronius Gracchus, consul and patron of Spain  Mother Cornelia, daughter of Scipio Africanus, conqueror of Hannibal Revive the Original Function of the Tribunate as the Defender of Plebeian Interests Revive the Original Function of the Tribunate as the Defender of Plebeian Interests Creators of the Popularis Tradition for the Late Republic Creators of the Popularis Tradition for the Late Republic

8. The Tribunate of Tiberius Gracchus (133/132 BCE ) Limitations to Holdings of Public Land (ager publicus) Limitations to Holdings of Public Land (ager publicus) Land Redistribution: Reestablish the Free Peasantry to Small Farmsteads Land Redistribution: Reestablish the Free Peasantry to Small Farmsteads Gracchan Commission for Assigning Land (triumviri agris iudicandis adsignandis) Gracchan Commission for Assigning Land (triumviri agris iudicandis adsignandis) Tribunician Obstacles (M. Octavius) and Senatorial Obstruction Tribunician Obstacles (M. Octavius) and Senatorial Obstruction Attalus III of Pergamum’s Legacy (133) Attalus III of Pergamum’s Legacy (133) Tiberius’ Direct Appeal to the Popular Assembly Tiberius’ Direct Appeal to the Popular Assembly Re-election Bid; Riots and Lynchings Re-election Bid; Riots and Lynchings Tiberius and 300 Gracchan Supporters found floating in the Tiber River Tiberius and 300 Gracchan Supporters found floating in the Tiber River

9. Gaius Gracchus’ Tribunate (123/122, 122/121 BCE ) Continues Tiberius’ Land Redistribution Program (ager publicus) Continues Tiberius’ Land Redistribution Program (ager publicus) Overseas Colonization; Junonia (Carthage) Overseas Colonization; Junonia (Carthage) Regular, State-Subsidized Grain for Capital (lex Sempronia frumentaria) Regular, State-Subsidized Grain for Capital (lex Sempronia frumentaria) Reform of Extortion Court (quaestio de repetundis): equites and publicani Reform of Extortion Court (quaestio de repetundis): equites and publicani Knights granted rights to exploit the province of Asia (lex de Asia) Knights granted rights to exploit the province of Asia (lex de Asia) Reserved seats for knights next to senators in theater Reserved seats for knights next to senators in theater

10. Senatorial Reaction Gaius Gracchus failed reelection bid for 121 BCE Gaius Gracchus failed reelection bid for 121 BCE The Italian Question The Italian Question Unrest and Rioting Unrest and Rioting Emergency Decree of the Senate (senatus consultum ultimum) Emergency Decree of the Senate (senatus consultum ultimum) Murder of Gaius and 3,000 Supporters Murder of Gaius and 3,000 Supporters

11. Conservative Retrenchment in the Aftermath of the Gracchi Occupation of ager publicus Occupation of ager publicus  Thorian Law of 118 BCE  Agrarian Law of 111 BCE Socio-Economic and Military Recruitment Crises Continue Socio-Economic and Military Recruitment Crises Continue Populares and Optimates Populares and Optimates

12. All land, ground, or buildings above mentioned, excluding such land or ground specially excepted as stated, shall be private land, and for all such land, ground, or buildings there shall be the same right of purchase and sale as for other private lands, grounds, or buildings; and the incumbent censor shall see that such land, ground, or building made private by this law shall be entered in the census in the same way as other land, grounds, or buildings… Abrogation of the Gracchan Land Laws, 111 BCE Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum, vol. 1, 2 nd ed., no. 585

13. The sword was never carried into the assembly and there was no civil slaughter until Tiberius Gracchus, tribune and law bringer, was the first to fall a victim to internal commotion; and with him many others, who were crowded together at the Capitol around the temple, were also slain. Sedition did not end with that abominable deed. Repeatedly the parties came into open conflict…As the evil gained in magnitude, open insurrections against the government and large warlike expeditions against their country were undertaken by exiles, criminals, or persons vying with one another for some office or military command. Appian, Civil Wars, 1, Introduction 2

14. External Developments: New Wars, New Conquests, New Crises North: (Ligurnians, Allobroges, Arverni) and the Conquest of Gallia Narbonensis (southern France) in the 120s BCE North: (Ligurnians, Allobroges, Arverni) and the Conquest of Gallia Narbonensis (southern France) in the 120s BCE South: Jugurtha of Numidia (war with Rome, 112-106 BCE) South: Jugurtha of Numidia (war with Rome, 112-106 BCE) C. Marius and the Germanic Northmen (Cimbri and Teutones) C. Marius and the Germanic Northmen (Cimbri and Teutones)

15. Marius and the Northmen Cimbri and Teutones defeat Roman armies in 105 BCE Cimbri and Teutones defeat Roman armies in 105 BCE Appointment of C. Marius to consulate (novus homo): 107, 104-100, 86 BCE Appointment of C. Marius to consulate (novus homo): 107, 104-100, 86 BCE Marius defeats Cimbri and Teutones in 102/101 BCE Marius defeats Cimbri and Teutones in 102/101 BCE Land Grants in Africa for Marius’ discharged veterans (tribune Saturninus) Land Grants in Africa for Marius’ discharged veterans (tribune Saturninus)

16. Coin of C. Fundanius Ca. 100 BCE Commemorating C. Marius’ Triumph Over Cimbri and Teutones

17. Our generals always thought that those peoples [Gallic and Germanic tribesmen] should be repulsed rather than punished in war. The famous Gaius Marius himself, whose divine and extraordinary ability relieved the great affliction and destruction visited upon the Roman people, checked the enormous force of the Gauls flowing into Italy but did not himself penetrate to their cities and abodes. Cicero, On the Consular Provinces, 13.32

18. Marius and the Jugurthine War Early Roman Defeats in Africa Early Roman Defeats in Africa Charges of Corruption and Bribery at Home Charges of Corruption and Bribery at Home Marius as “New Man” Marius as “New Man”  Catonian Politics against Corrupted Aristocrats  Supported by the Equestrian Order  Appointed by Popular Assembly  Property Qualification Eliminated  Volunteer Army (“Marius Mules”)

19. The Italian Question and the Social War of 90-87 BCE Tribunate of M. Livius Drusus, 91 BCE Tribunate of M. Livius Drusus, 91 BCE  Proposes Roman citizenship to all Italians (idea had been broached in 125 BCE)  Courts to be shared by equestrians and senators  Assassination of Drusus Italian Rebellion Italian Rebellion  Establishment of Capital at Corfinium (Italia)  Italia mints separatist coinage (Italian bull gorging Roman wolf) Aftermath Aftermath  Romans grant citizenship in 89 BCE  War winds down by 87 BCE (“Pyrrhic victory” for Roman aristocracy?)

21. Italian Bull Gorging Roman Wolf

22. The East: Mithridates VI of Pontos Competition for Bithynia as Client State Competition for Bithynia as Client State Mithridates invades Asia Minor and Greece Mithridates invades Asia Minor and Greece  Slaughter of 80,000 Italian businessmen  Occupation of Athens, 88 BCE Factional Struggle in Rome for Mithridatic Command Factional Struggle in Rome for Mithridatic Command  C. Marius and L. Cornelius Sulla?  Sulla awarded command (makes his name in the Social War)  Sulpicius Rufus proposes transfer of command to Marius  Sulla’s march on Rome in 88 BCE

24. Green = Roman Empire ca. 100 BCE Yellow/Orange Verticals = Areas under Mithridates’ Influence Yellow = Kingdom of Pontos Under Mithridates VI

25. Revolutionary Violence in Roman Republican Political Life: Sulla’s March on Rome (88 BCE) Sulpicius Rufus murdered Sulpicius Rufus murdered Flight of Marius Flight of Marius Sulla wins Mithridatic command Sulla wins Mithridatic command Marius and Cinna retake control of Rome in 87 (proscriptions) Marius and Cinna retake control of Rome in 87 (proscriptions) Sulla comes to agreement with Mithridates (85) Sulla comes to agreement with Mithridates (85) Disloyal cities of Asia Minor pay heavy reparations to Sulla Disloyal cities of Asia Minor pay heavy reparations to Sulla

26. Sulla’s Return (83 BCE) and Dictatorship (81-79 BCE) Battle at the Colline Gate, 82 BCE Battle at the Colline Gate, 82 BCE Proscription and Confiscations (10,000 murdered) Proscription and Confiscations (10,000 murdered) The Dictatorship of L. Cornelius Sulla (82-79 BCE) The Dictatorship of L. Cornelius Sulla (82-79 BCE) Conservative Reforms (“Turning Back the Clock”) Conservative Reforms (“Turning Back the Clock”)  Restoration of Senate’s Authority  Restrictions on tribunes (ineligible for higher offices)  Control of courts returned to Senate  Senate doubled to 600 members (admission and incorporation of wealthiest equestrians)  Minimum age requirements for offices enforced

27. After crushing Italy by war, fire, and murder, Sulla’s generals visited the cities and established garrisons at the suspected places….Sulla himself called the Roman people together in an assembly and made them a speech, vaunting his own exploits and making other menacing statements in order to inspire terror….he immediately proscribed 40 senators and 1,600 knights. He seems to have been the first to make such a formal list of those whom he condemned to death, to offer prizes to assassins and rewards to informers, and to threaten those who concealed the proscribed. Appian, Civil Wars, 1.11.95-12.103 (excerpts)

28. A Deadly Formula Unprecedented and Unconstitutional Measures Unprecedented and Unconstitutional Measures  Marius’ consecutive consulships  Sulla’s extended dictatorship Use of Armies for Political Ends (Sulla’s March on Rome) Use of Armies for Political Ends (Sulla’s March on Rome) Commanders Responsible for Land Grants to Veterans Commanders Responsible for Land Grants to Veterans Charismatic General + Personal Army Charismatic General + Personal Army Death of Senatorial Government Death of Senatorial Government

29. Readings for Next Meeting H.H. Scullard, From the Gracchi to Nero, 88-158 H.H. Scullard, From the Gracchi to Nero, 88-158 M. Gelzer, Caesar: Politician and Statesman, 272-333 M. Gelzer, Caesar: Politician and Statesman, 272-333 J. Patterson, “Military Organization and Social Change,” in War and Society in Republican Rome, 92-112 J. Patterson, “Military Organization and Social Change,” in War and Society in Republican Rome, 92-112

30. Questions for Reading What factors led to the breakdown of Republican government in the first decades of the first century BCE? What factors led to the breakdown of Republican government in the first decades of the first century BCE? How did Caesar exploit the social and economic consequences of empire differently than the warlords who preceded him? How did Caesar exploit the social and economic consequences of empire differently than the warlords who preceded him? How did the social and economic consequences of empire affect Roman military organization in the late Republic? How did the social and economic consequences of empire affect Roman military organization in the late Republic?