160. Organizational Psychology: A Scientist-Practitioner Approach Jex, S. M
Organizational Psychology: A Scientist-Practitioner Approach Jex, S. M., & Britt, T. W. (2014)
Prepared by:
Christopher J. L. Cunningham, PhD
University of Tennessee at Chattanooga
Kelsey-Jo Ritter
Bowling Green State University
Kristen S. Jennings
Clemson University

161. Chapter 9: Theories of Motivation
Understanding motivation requires understanding why people do what they do; the importance of this within organizations is highlighted

162. Definitional Issues Motivation = abstract, hypothetical construct
Several possible explanations:
In terms of form, direction, intensity, duration
To energize, channel, and sustain
What dependent variable (DV) should we study?
What behaviors do organizations truly wish to motivate?

163. Assumptions About Motivation
Involves choice
Allocation of resources
Multilevel process

164. Need-Based Theories People are motivated to obtain what they need
Maslow’s needs hierarchy (Figure 9.1): Universal theory to explain the motivation of purpose-driven behaviors in terms of several needs
Physiological, safety, love and belonging, esteem, and self-actualization
Rigid progression up the hierarchy beginning with basic needs is most often proposed
Although research has not fully supported this hierarchy, the value of this theory is highlighted
Five main theories of motivation relevant to organizations
four from psychological origins and one developed within work environments

165. Need-Based Theories (Cont.)
ERG Theory: Focuses on existence, relatedness, and growth needs (compressing Maslow’s five levels)
No strict hierarchical progression is built into this model
Research has not strongly supported this explanation of motivation, but ERG has led to additional theories based on need satisfaction

166. Need-Based Theories (Cont.)
Need for achievement theory: Focuses on the single need for achievement that arises in people’s goal-directed behaviors
As a personality characteristic, this need appears to influence personal motivation at work and within society
This theory’s specificity makes it more easily applicable within organizations than other need theories

167. Cognitive Process Theories
Motivation described in terms of a person’s thought processes
Stemming from the cognitive revolution in psychology in the 1970s, several motivation theories were based on the metaphor of the mind as computer

168. Cognitive Process Theories (Cont.)
Equity theory: Form of social exchange theory suggesting employees bring inputs to the organization when they work, and they receive outcomes in return for these inputs
Cognitive comparison of inputs to outcomes  ratio we compare against other people’s ratios
Equity = when your ratio is equal to the ratios of other similar workers
Inequity develops when there is a discrepancy (e.g., underpayment, overpayment)

169. Equity Theory (Cont.)
Workers are motivated to resolve discrepancies via multiple strategies:
Increase outcomes
Reduce inputs
Adjust perceptions
Change comparative standard
Withdraw from the exchange
Associated with organizational justice and fairness perceptions

170. Cognitive Process Theories (Cont.)
Expectancy theory: Anticipating the future, we adjust our behaviors toward actions that (a) we will be able to do (expectancy), (b) will lead to some outcome (instrumentality), and (c) will lead to a valued outcome (valence)
Often combined as an equation (Table 8.3) to explain motivation in terms of a force that propels people to perform
Well supported by research
Useful when explaining how people will direct efforts when faced with multiple options

171. Cognitive Process Theories (Cont.)
Goal-setting theory: Human behavior motivated and regulated by goals, which (a) direct attention and focus efforts, (b) facilitate persistence toward a specific task, and (c) facilitate the development of task-related strategies for achievement
Motivating goals are difficult, accepted, and specific
Large body of supporting research
Some boundary conditions have been identified
Spontaneous, ambiguous, or nonparticipatory situations may not be best for goal-based motivation strategies

172. Cognitive Process Theories (Cont.)
Self-regulation: Two general forms
Control theory: Motivation as an ongoing, dynamic process associated with goals
We gather information about our goals
If discrepant with our standard, we engage the environment to reduce discrepancy
Useful for goal setting and for explaining changes in employee behavior
Not much empirical testing or support yet within organizations

173. Self-Regulation (Cont.)
2. Social cognitive theory (SCT): Cognitive factors mediate the relationships between the environment a person experiences and the behavioral responses that result
Self-efficacy is a core component here and has been directly linked with many components of motivation
Dual control systems (positive and negative discrepancies) can help to explain goal-directed behaviors

174. Behavioral Approach Behavior determined by its consequences
Reinforcement and punishment are key concepts
Risk of punishment within organizations is discussed
Shaping can be used for organizational training efforts
Behavioral principle of feedback is also important
Organizational Behavior Management (OBM)
Limited utility of these principles for complex behaviors

175. Self-Determination Theory (SDT)
An organismic theory suggesting that people strive for growth and their fullest potential
Involves several smaller motivational theories associated with intrinsic personal motivation
Recent SDT theorizing has incorporated additional forms of internal and external motivation
To explain goal commitment and attainment

176. Job-Based Theories
Motivation-hygiene theory: Job content is primary motivator at work
Apart from money, hygiene factors (general work environment and benefits features) and other motivators (present in a person’s job content) influence employee behavior
Not well supported by research, but has promoted the importance of job content as a motivator and the distinction between internal and external motivation
Difficult theory to apply

177. Job-Based Theories (Cont.)
Job characteristics theory: Characteristics of a person’s job are key motivational influences on behavior within organizations (Figure 9.3)
Core job dimensions of skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback
Linked to critical psychological states (experienced meaningfulness, responsibility, knowledge of results)
One’s growth-need strength moderates the relationship between dimensions and psychological states and then outcomes
Parts of this theory have been useful

178. Job-Based Theories (Cont.)
Campion’s multidisciplinary approach: Emphasizes the importance of a job’s design on worker motivation (Table 9.1)
Guides job design, but has implications for motivation
Four main integrated themes: motivational, mechanistic, biological, and perceptual motor
Each theme has a different set of advantages and disadvantages
Cost-benefit evaluations and trade-offs are critical components, as is an interdisciplinary approach to motivation

179. Job-Based Theories (Cont.)
Grant’s Relational Approach
Positive impact on others
Contact with those who benefit from the work

180. Summary of Job-Based Theories
Extension of organizational psychology away from need satisfaction theories and toward actual features of the work environment
Limitation is that they are based on objective job content, which has not always been shown to correlate well with subjective impressions and perceptions
These theories lack details on the process by which job content results in specific outcomes

181. Practical Value of Motivation Theories
Job-based, cognitive process, and behavioral theories tend to have more utility than need-based theories (given the idiosyncratic needs of individuals and organizations)
Job content is especially tangible for use within organizations
Cognitive process theories may also be applied in the form of training and interventions