1. Week 3 Memory & Information Processing

2. The Nature of Memory What is Memory? Memory The retention of information over time What is involved in Memory? Encoding How information gets into memory  Storage The retention of information over time Retrieval Bringing information out of memory storage

3. Memory & Information Processing In order to remember something, we must: Encode Encode (get info into our brain) Store Store (keep the info somewhere safe) Retrieve Retrieve (get the info back out later)

4. (Kohn & Kohn, 1998)

5. Memory Encoding Rehearsal The conscious repetition of information that increases the length of time that information stays in memory Depth of processing Deep processing of stimuli produces better memory of them Elaboration The extensiveness of processing at any given depth of memory

6. Information is stored in: Long Term Memory Short Term Memory Sensory Memory

7. External Events Sensory Memory Short-Term Memory Long-Term Memory Sensory Input Attention & Encoding Encoding Retrieval (Richarson, 1999)

8. Memory Storage Atkinson-Shiffrin theory Memory involves a sequence of three stages Sensory memory Short-term (working) memory Long-term memory

9. Sensory Memory Sensory memory A form of memory storage that hold information from the world in its original sensory form for only an instant, not much longer than the brief time it is exposed to the visual, auditory, and other senses Echoic memory Auditory sensory memory in which information is retained for up to several seconds Iconic memory Visual sensory memory in which information is retained for only about 1/4 second

10. Working (Short-Term) Memory Working memory A limited-capacity storage system in which information is retained for as long as 30 seconds, unless it is rehearsed, in which case it can be retained longer Memory span The number of digits an individual can report back in order after a single presentation of them

11. Long Term Memory Long-term memory A relatively permanent type of memory that holds huge amounts of information for a long period of time

12. (Kohn & Kohn, 1998)

13. Memory’s Contents Declarative memory The conscious recollection of information, such as specific facts or events Can be verbally communicated Nondeclarative memory Memory that is affected by prior experience without that experience being consciously recollected Cannot be verbally communicated

14. Declarative Memory Episodic memory The retention of information about the where and when of life’s happenings Semantic memory A person’s knowledge about the world General academic knowledge, meanings of words, important places/dates, etc.

15. Representing Memory Network theories Our memories can be envisioned as a complex network of nodes that stand for labels or concepts Schema theories When we reconstruct information,we use existing concepts (schemas) to organize and interpret information

16. How Is Information Encoded? Encoding Automatic Processing Effortful Processing Automatic Processing “CAT” Effortful Processing “464-7765” (Richardson, 1999)

17. Automatic Processing Requires Little Or No Effort and Is Very Difficult To Shut Off

18. Effortful Processing Requires Extra Effort and Is Very Complex Encoding

19. Meaning Visualization Organization Key Ways of Processing Info:

20. Emotional Memories Flashbulb memories Memories of emotionally significant events that people often recall with more accuracy and vivid imagery than everyday events Personal trauma Repressed memories Mood-congruent memories

21. Encoding Meaning Semantic Encoding Is Best For Verbal Information Semantic Visual Acoustic Levels of Processing Verbal Info SemanticAcousticVisual (Richardson, 1999)

22. We Encode Meaning MEANING of verbal information is encoded, rather than the exact word, wording or sound

23. Encoding Imagery Earliest memories Earliest memories involve mental imagery concrete words It’s easier to recall concrete words than abstract words Flashbulb Memories “Do you remember that time….?

24. Organizing Info & Encoding Meaningful Info is Easier to Encode Chunking Magical Number 7±2 “ciacnnabccbsnbc” ROYGBIV Hierarchies Broad Concepts First Details Next Class Notes (Richardson, 1999)

25. Storage: Sensory Memory How do we know it exists? Sperling (1960) Immediate Recall of All 9 Letters Only about 50% recall Cued Recall of Specific Row (tone) Almost 100% recall K Z R Q B T S G F Iconic Memory ~ 250 msecs Echoic Memory ~ 3-4 seconds (Richardson, 1999) 50 msec display

26. Storage: Short Term Memory Task Remember CHJ (no rehearsal) 100 80 60 40 20 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 Time (sec) between presentation and recall Percent of Ss who recalled consonants Limited Time (rehearsal) Limited Capacity ( 7 ± 2) STM (Richardson, 1999)

27. Storage: Long Term Memory Ave adult brain has ~ 1 billion bits of info stored Capacity may be 1000 - 100,000,000 times greater How precise and durable are our memories? Forgetting Curve (Ebbinghaus) Much of what we learn we quickly forget 60 50 40 30 20 10 1 2 3 4 5 10 15 20 25 Time (days) since learning Percent of list retained (Richardson, 1999)

28. Memory Retrieval Serial position effect Recall is superior for the items at the beginning of a list and the end of a list Primacy effect Superior recall for items at the beginning of a list Recency effect Superior recall for items at the end of a list

29. Where are memories stored? Lashley’s Rats - Trained rats & then removed specific portions of their brains Gerard’s Hamsters - Trained hamsters & temporarily “turn off” brain’s electrical activity Conclusion Memories do not reside in a single, specific location. Both the rats & the hamsters still “remembered” their training! (Richardson, 1999)

30. The Neurobiological Basis of Memory Memory Retrieval Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon A type of “effortful retrieval” that occurs when people are confident they know something but just can’t quite seem to pull it out of memory

31. How are memories stored? Aplysia - during conditioning: 1. More serotonin released at certain synapses 2. These synapses became more efficient Long Term Potentiation - prolonged strengthening of potential neural firing Serotonin Blockers Alcohol Boxing Shock Therapy Serotonin Stimulators Stress Emotions (Richardson, 1999)

32. Separate Processing & Storage Semantic Facts/General Knowledge Episodic Experienced events Procedural Skills Motor/Cognitive Dispositions Classical/Operant Conditioning Explicit knowing you know Implicit not knowing you know Types of Long-Term Memory

33. Priming Activation of a connected node (Implicit) Priming Activation of a connected node (Implicit) Remembering: Retrieval Cues Recognition Identification of items previously learned Recall Retrieval of information previously learned Retrieval Cues - help us to remember Web of Associations “ hare ” (Richardson, 1999)

34. Remembering: Context & Mood Context Effect Memory increases if recall occurs in the same context as encoding.

35. Remembering: Context & Mood State-Dependent Memory increases if mood at recall is the same as retrieval Easier to remember something you learned in a good mood when you’re in a good mood again

36. Forgetting is a Retrieval Failure Some info may never make it to LTM Encoding Failure Some info may never make it to LTM Encoding Failure Some info may not make it out of LTM Interference Some info may not make it out of LTM Interference Proactive vs. Retroactive Interference Interference Interference - learning some items may interfere with learning other items (Richardson, 1999)

37. Forgetting Interference theory We forget because other information gets in the way of what we want to remember Proactive interference Material that was learned earlier disrupts the recall of material learned later Retroactive interference Material learned later disrupts retrieval of information learned earlier

38. Forgetting - Encoding Failure? External Events Sensory Memory Short-Term Memory Long-Term Memory Attention & Encoding Retrieval (Richardson, 1999)

39. Interference Proactive Interference Something learned earlier disrupts something learned later. Retroactive Interference Something learned later disrupts something learned earlier. Past Present PastPresent (Richardson, 1999)

40. Retrieval Cues Encoding specificity principle Associations formed at the time of encoding or learning tend to be effective retrieval cues Priming Activating particular connections or association in memory

41. Retrieval Cues Recall A memory measure in which the individual must retrieve previously learned information Essay test Recognition A memory measure in which the individual only has to identify (“recognize”) learned items Multiple choice test

42. Amnesia Anterograde amnesia Affects the retention of new information or events Doesn’t affect information learned before the onset of the condition Retrograde amnesia Memory loss for a segment of the past but not for new events (Feldman, 1999)

43. Implicit & Explicit Memories Amnesiacs, incapable of learning new facts, can be conditioned to do new tasks They know things but don’t remember learning! Implicit Memory Knowing how to do something Cerebellum Explicit Memory Knowing that you know something Hippocampus

44. Mnemonics Tools for remembering things: Acronyms Analogies Story-telling (Mind Map, 2002)

45. Memory and Study Strategies Effective strategies Pay attention and minimize distraction Understand the material rather than rotely memorize it Organize what you put into memory (Mind Map, 2002)

46. More Effective Strategies Mnemonics Specific memory aids for remembering information Method of loci Acronyms Keyword method (Mind Map, 2002)

47. More Effective Strategies Ask yourself questions Spread out and consolidate your learning Cognitively monitor your progress Be a good time manager and planner (Mind Map, 2002)

48. Taking Good Notes Summarizing Outlining Concept maps The Cornell method Review notes periodically (Mind Map, 2002)

49. The PQ4R Method Preview Question Read Reflect Recite Review (Mind Map, 2002)

50. References Feldman, M. (1999). McGraw Hill Company. Retrieved May 2002 from World Wide Web at: http://www.mcgrawhill.com. http://www.mcgrawhill.com Kohn, A. J. & Kohn, W. (1998). The Integrator 2.0. CD-Rom. Brooks/Cole Thomson Learning. Mind Map. (2002). Retrieved May 2002 from World Wide Web at: http://www.mindmap.com.http://www.mindmap.com Richardson, K. (1999). Retrieved May 2002 from the World Wide Web at: http://www.monmouth.eduhttp://www.monmouth.edu.