0. Lecture 3 Motivation Concepts
BBA 352 Organizational Behavior
Department of Business Administration
S.Chan

1. Definition of Motivation
The result of the interaction between the individual and the situation.
The processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal – specifically, an organizational goal.
Three key elements:
Intensity – how hard a person tries
Direction – effort that is channeled toward, and consistent with, organizational goals
Persistence – how long a person can maintain effort

2. Early Theories of Motivation
These early theories may not be directly valid, but they do form the basis for contemporary theories and are still used by practicing managers.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory
McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
McClelland’s Theory of Needs

3. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
There is a hierarchy of five needs. As each need is substantially satisfied, the next need becomes dominant.
Assumptions
Individuals cannot move to the next higher level until all needs at the current (lower) level are satisfied
Must move in hierarchical order
Self-Actualization
Esteem
Social
Safety
Physiological
Higher Order
Internal
Lower Order
External

4. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Physiological Needs
needs for oxygen, food, water, and a relatively constant body temperature. They are the strongest needs because if a person were deprived of all needs, the physiological ones would come first in the person's search for satisfaction.
Safety Needs
When all physiological needs are satisfied, the needs for security can become active. Adults have little awareness of their security needs except in times of emergency or periods of disorganization in the social structure. Children often display the signs of insecurity and the need to be safe.
Needs of Love, Affection and Belongingness
When the needs for safety and for physiological well-being are satisfied, the next class of needs for love, affection and belongingness can emerge. Maslow assumes people seek to overcome feelings of loneliness, involves giving / receiving love, affection and the sense of belonging.
Needs for Esteem
When the first three needs are satisfied, the needs for esteem can become dominant. These involve needs for both self-esteem and for the esteem a person gets from others. Humans have a need for a stable, firmly based, high level of self-respect, and respect from others. When these needs are satisfied, the person feels self-confident and valuable as a person in the world. When these needs are frustrated, the person feels inferior, weak, helpless and worthless.
Needs for Self-Actualization
The needs for self-actualization is a person's need to be and do that which the person was "born to do." "A musician must make music, an artist must paint, and a poet must write." These needs make themselves felt in signs of restlessness. The person feels on edge, tense, restless.

5. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
A satisfied need is not a motivator of behavior. Therefore a person who already receives a more than adequate level of salary, additional payments may have no effect on motivation
A motivator for one person may not be effective with another, so different people will have different combinations of needs
Effective motivation results from an accurate assessment of the needs of the individual under the manager’s supervision
E.g. - motivated by building their confidence.
- How to motivate a staff who’s great need for esteem but working performance is not good?—By announcing his/her poor performance to colleagues in a meeting

6. McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y
Two distinct views of human beings: Theory X (basically negative) and Theory Y (positive).
Theory X, employees inherently have little motivation, dislike work, avoid responsibility, self-centred and do not care about organizational goal, resist change, they are assumed work for money and security.
How to manage theory X staff: they must be directed or forced to change, use implicit threats, close supervision, tight control
Theory Y, workers are perceived as self directed, enjoy work and seek responsibility. They will be committed to their objectives if the reward are appropriate that higher level of fulfilment is motivated. Also assume that creativity and ingenuity are common
McGegor suggests that participative decision making, responsibility can challenging job would help maximize employees’ job motivation
Decentralization and delegation, job enlargement, participative management, performance appraisals can be used.
No empirical evidence to support this theory.

7. Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory/ Motivation-hygiene theory
Key Point: Satisfaction and dissatisfaction are not opposites but separate constructs
This theory has substantially contributed to the understanding of motivation at work, particularly extended Maslow’s theory to the work situation and highly the importance of job content factors.`
There are two types of motivators, one type which results in satisfaction with the job (the motivators ), and the other which merely prevents dissatisfaction (the hygienes).
Dissatisfaction hygiene includes:
company policy/administration
working conditions
supervision
interpersonal relations
money
status
security
Job satisfaction motivator includes:
achievement
recognition
work itself
responsibility
advancement

8. Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory/ Motivation-hygiene theory
Key Point: Satisfaction and dissatisfaction are not opposites but separate constructs
Herzberg: Factors to job satisfaction could be different from factors to job dissatisfaction—they are two different constructs.
Intrinsic factors (true motivators) such as advancement, recognition, achievement, work itself, responsibility, growth are related to job satisfaction
Extrinsic factors (hygiene factors) such as supervision, pay, company policies and working environment are major factors lead to job dissatisfaction.
Improving extrinsic factors not necessary lead to an increase in job satisfaction, managers remove improve extrinsic factors may bring peace at work but not necessarily motivation.

9. David McClelland’s Three Needs Theory
Need for Achievement (nAch)
The drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to strive to succeed
They want to have success and need to receive positive feedback
Avoid low and high risk
Like to work alone, or with high achiever
McClelland believes they can be best leaders although they can be too demanding and result driven
Need for Power (nPow)
The need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise
High need for personal power, want to direct and influence others
Enjoy competition and status-oriented position
Lack flexibility and people centered skills

10. David McClelland’s Three Needs Theory
Need for Affiliation (nAff)
The desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships
They want to be liked and accepted by others, focus on personal interaction
They tend to conform to the norms of their work group
Prefer cooperation over competition
They perform well in customer service and client interaction
McClelland believed that strong nAff undermines objectivity of and decision making capability of managers

11. Performance Predictions for High nAch
People with a high need for achievement are likely to:
Prefer to undertake activities with a 50/50 chance of success, avoiding very low- or high-risk situations
Be motivated in jobs that offer high degree of personal responsibility, feedback, and moderate risk
Not necessarily make good managers – too personal a focus. Most good general managers do NOT have a high nAch
Need high level of nPow and low nAff for managerial success
Good research support, but it is not a very practical theory, difficult to measure the needs

12. Contemporary Theories of Motivation
Goal-Setting Theory
Management by Objectives (MBO)
Self-Efficacy Theory
Also known as Social Cognitive Theory or Social Learning Theory
Equity Theory
Expectancy Theory

13. Locke’s Goal-Setting Theory (late 1960’s)
Basic Premise:
That specific and difficult goals, with self-generated feedback, lead to higher performance
Goal is a major source of work motivation. It tells employees what needs to be done, and how much effort will be needed.
Difficult Goals:
Be focus and direct attention
Energize the person to work harder
Difficulty increases persistence
Force people to be more effective and efficient
Relationship between goals and performance depends on:
Goal commitment (the more public the better!)
Task characteristics (simple, well-learned)
Culture (best match is in North America)

14. Implementation: Management by Objectives
MBO is a systematic way to utilize goal-setting.
Goals must be:
Tangible
Verifiable
Measurable
Corporate goals are broken down into smaller, more specific goals at each level of organization.
Four common ingredients to MBO programs:
Goal specificity
Participative decision making
Explicit time period
Performance feedback
MBO may fail in implementation when: lack of commitment by top managers, unrealistic expectations inability or unwillingness of management to allocate rewards cultural factors, e.g. Japan, low risk, long term goals.

15. Bandura’s Self-Efficacy Theory
An individual’s belief that he or she is capable of performing a task.
One with higher self-efficacy has higher confidence in the ability to success, more willing to master the challenge and not be easy to give up in difficult situation
Higher efficacy is related to:
Greater confidence
Greater persistence in the face of difficulties
Better response to negative feedback (work harder)
Self-Efficacy complements Goal-Setting Theory.

16. Increasing Self-Efficacy
Enactive mastery
Most important source of efficacy
Gaining relevant experience with task or job
“Practice makes perfect”
Vicarious modeling
Increasing confidence by watching others perform the task
Most effective when observer sees the model to be similar to him- or herself
Verbal persuasion
Motivation through verbal conviction
Pygmalion (畢馬龍效應) and Galatea effects - self-fulfilling prophecies
Arousal
Getting “psyched up” – emotionally aroused – to complete task
Can hurt performance if emotion is not a component of the task
管理学中有Pygmalion Effect和Galatea Effect。前者意为团队管理者对于团队的影响是绝对的，管理者对于团队及成员有何态度与期望值，这个团队便会朝怎样的方向发展；后者则强调团队成员自身的期望和抱负，管理者只有在成员充分发挥他们的能力，实现他们的抱负的情况下，团队每个人才能有最大的绩效发挥，不能武断地给团队成员规定非常高的目标值。显然，Pygmalion 效应和Galatea 效应代表着，只有在管理者的期望与团队成员的期望合拍的情况下才能有高绩效
Pygmalion effect　出自於希臘神話 這是希臘史上著名的愛情故事。 故事是說一個雕刻家Pygmalion，他總是覺得她所見到的女人都並不是那麼的完美 他總是看著她們，想著她們身上不完美之處，想著可以如何改善 最終他決定創造一個完美的女人。經由他自己靈巧的雙手，他雕刻出了一個完美的女人 他將她雕刻的世界上任何的女人都美麗，都完美 然而他卻不知不覺的愛上了他自己雕刻出來的完美女人 當雕像完成了之後，Pygmalion也發現，他愛上了這象牙雕刻的女子。 他命名她為Galatea，但是她卻無法言語，呼喚他的名子 他不再視這一尊雕像為象牙，因為他深深的愛上了她 Pygmalion每天擁抱她，親吻她，撫摸著她冰冷的身軀。卻苦無得不到回應。 最終希臘女神同情他，將Galatea變成了真人 這其實這也算是一種心理反應生理的作用~ 簡單說：只要有正面的想法，就會得到正面的回應 這個效應與「自我實現的預言（Self-fulfilling Prophecy）」 有異曲同工之妙，當然預言可以是壞事，也可以是好事， 不過最重要的是，一個人如果能夠得到適當的鼓勵和認同， 即使再平庸的人也可以有突出的成就。 然而，如果一開始就認定自己會失敗，通常結果就真的會失敗。 典型的例子： 算命的人說你今年會倒楣 你遇到了一兩件倒楣事，就開始真的覺得自己很倒楣 然後影響心理狀態，就影響辦事效率跟成功率，然後就真的很倒楣一樣 事實上人平常本來就會有倒楣事 如果沒人說你會倒楣，那其實你遇到一兩件倒楣事並不會放在心上 但是有人告訴你你會倒楣，你遇到倒楣事的時候，就會開始懷疑自己真的倒楣了 畢馬龍效應(Pygmalion effect)指個人行為表現， 常傾向別人預期的影響：別人期望他如何，他果然就變得如何。 簡單來說，在有目的的情境中，個人對自己（或別人對自己）有所預期者 通常會在自己以後的行為結果中應驗， 所以我們可以歸納出事先預期什麼，事後將得到些什麼 不過前提是被預期者一定要付出努力才行

17. Adams’ Equity Theory
Employees compare their ratios of outcomes-to-inputs of relevant others.
When ratios are equal: state of equity exists – there is no tension as the situation is considered fair
Fairness between inputs: effort, experience, education, competence and output: salary, raises, recognition) relative to those of others.
When ratios are unequal: tension exists due to unfairness
Under-rewarded states cause anger
Over-rewarded states cause guilt
Tension motivates people to act to bring their situation into equity

18. Equity Theory’s “Relevant Others”
Can be four different situations:
Self-Inside
The person’s experience in a different job in the same organization
Self-Outside
The person’s experience in a different job in a different organization
Other-Inside
Another individual or group within the organization
Other-Outside
Another individual or group outside of the organization

19. Reactions to Inequity Employee behaviors to create equity:
Change inputs (slack off)
Change outcomes (increase output)
Distort/change perceptions of self
Distort/change perceptions of others
Choose a different referent person
Leave the field (quit the job)
Propositions relating to inequitable pay:
Paid by time:
Overrewarded employees produce more
Underrewarded employees produce less with low quality
Paid by quality:
Overrewarded employees give higher quality
Underrewarded employees make more of low quality

20. Justice and Equity Theory
Organizational Justice
Distributive Justice
Fairness of outcome
Procedural Justice
Fairness of outcome process
Interactional Justice
Being treated with dignity and respect
Overall perception of what is fair in the workplace.

21. Vroom’s Expectancy Theory
The strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of the outcome to the individual.
Effort-performance relationship: perception about a given amount of effort will lead to performance
If I give a maximum effort, will it be recognized in my performance appraisal?
Performance-reward relationship: perception of the degree of performing a particular level will lead to attainment of a desired outcome
If I get a good performance appraisal, will it lead to better rewards?
Rewards-personal goal relationship: The attractiveness of the reward which satisfies an individual personal goal or needs
If I ‘m rewarded, are the rewards that I find personally attractive?