1. Narration and focalization

2. Stories Stories don’t just exist—they must be told
The telling affects the story and how it is experienced

3. Narration Narration is the telling of the story
The narrator is the person (entity) who tells the story

4. Storytelling levels in literature
Source: Jahn, Narratology

5. Narration in audiovisual texts
However, in audiovisual content the concept of narration is more problematic than in literature
There may be no single narrator
Some say there is no narrator at all
Others say that the ‘auteur’ is the narrator (usually the director)
Jahn: “Filmic Composition Device” [FCD]

6. Narration in film

7. An important piece of vocabulary
The fictional world within which the characters live and act is know as the ‘diegesis’

8. Narration
Narration can come from ‘within’ the fictional world (“homodiegetic”) or ‘outside’ the fictional world (“heterodiegetic”)
Narration can be very obvious (“overt”) or may be hard to detect (“covert”)
The narrator may take the viewpoint of a character, may present the views of several characters or may approach the story from a godlike view (“omniscience”)

9. Homodiegetic narrative
The homodiegetic narrative is delivered by a story character—someone actively involved in the narrative. Usually, but not always, she uses the first-person pronoun in her address. She may be the protagonist or just a bit player, but she is somehow affecting or affected by the actions going on in the story.

10. The Wonder Years
Inside Man
Desperate Housewives

11. Homodiegetic narrator
The author/auteur must decide which character will narrate.
The perspective of the narrator influences what the audience member will see, hear and know about the plot, other characters, etc.
Minor characters may have very limited knowledge
The nature of the narrator will also affect the tone and emotional implications of the narrative

12. Limitations of homodiegetic narration
“she is subject to 'ordinary human limitations' she is restricted to a personal and subjective point of view; she has no direct access to (or authority on) events she did not witness in person; she can't be in two places at the same time and she has no way of knowing for certain what went on in the minds of other characters.”
Jahn, Narratology

13. Homodiegetic narrators
The Lovely Bones
Atonement
Apocalypse Now
Malcolm in the Middle
Fight Club
Rashomon
Goodfellas
The Usual Suspects
Apocalypse Now
A Clockwork Orange

14. Displacement of time
Homodiegetic narrators often tell a story about things that they experienced some time in the past
A common form of such narration gives an account of the narrator’s earlier life
The Wonder Years
Stand By Me
Titanic

15. Heterodiegetic narration
Heterodiegetic narration comes from a narrator who is not a character in the story.
Heterodiegetic narrators vary widely in their knowledge and perspective. They may be restricted to the perspective of a single ‘person’ or may have ‘omniscience’—boundless ability to know all there is to know about the plot, characters, setting, etc. in a story.

16. Heterodiegetic narrators
News anchors
Documentary voice-overs
Commercials
Scroll in Star Wars
VO in Lord of the Rings
Almost all Westerns
The Lost Boys
The Client
The Graduate
The Hulk
Stranger than Fiction
Lord of the Rings

17. Narrator personality
The personality and characteristics of the narrator will affect the audience response to the narrative
How serious is he?
How authoritative is he?
How ‘normal’ is he?
Some voices project certain traits
VO Narrators can make a lot of money

18. Overtness
How obvious (or overt) is the narration? An overt narrator is out in the open—a focus of the audience member’s attention. A hidden narrator is covert.
An overt narrator makes the telling or construction of the story an important focus for the audience

19. Indicators of narration in audiovisual media
In film, television, videogames, etc. five main indicators of narration are present:
Voice over (VO) narration—an off-camera voice speaks to the audience member
More rarely, an onscreen narrator is present
The point of view of the camera
Intrusive visual effects
Onscreen writing
Much of the craft of traditional Hollywood style is in making the narration covert.

20. Overtness Overt narration Covert narration News anchors
Game show hosts
Inside Man
Extreme Makeover
Big Bang Theory
CSI Miami
But note visual effects
The Client
A History of Violence

21. Point of View
Physical point of view: the position or angle from which the camera or a particular narrator or character observes an event or a scene
Mental point of view: the perspective taken by a particular narrator or character in a story in seeing and hearing an even or scene, reflecting on an idea, creating a relationship between two or more things, or remembering events or dreams

22. Focalization
Focalization refers to the viewpoint from which the story is told
Usually the viewpoint of the narrator
omniscient
However, the viewpoint can be split from the narration
The narrator (or FCD) can tell the story from a character’s perspective

23. Three major types of POV (Jahn)
View of narrator
Homodiegetic first-person
Heterodiegetic omniscient
Narrator becomes covert and presents viewpoint of story character
Internal focalization

24. Advantages of omniscience
The viewer/reader can be made aware of things that are unknown to the characters
plot, characters (and what they are thinking), setting, backstory
The maniacal killer is right behind you, idiot!
The position allows for evaluation of characters and their actions
He got what he deserved
He knew he would get caught—that’s why he did it

25. Advantages of omniscience
The story can be more ‘expansive’—it can include a much wider set of characters, motives, actions
While he was doing this, she was doing that, and her friend was with her brother, etc.

26. Internal focalization
The story can be told from the viewpoint of a character even if the narrator is heterodiegetic
The narrator ‘gets inside the head’ of that character, often relating their perceptions, fears, beliefs, etc. to the implied audience member.

27. Internal focalization
“One of the main effects of internal focalization is to attract attention to the mind of the reflector-character and away from the narrator and the process of narratorial mediation.” (Jahn)
The goal in this case is to draw attention to the story and not its telling

28. Representing focalization
Focalization can be represented by ‘subjective’ camerawork
over-the-shoulder camera shots, shot-reverse shot representations of interactions among characters, focus on a character looking into the distance then turning to adopt the sightline of the looker, etc.
Things that only one character can see may be presented to the audience
Sixth Sense
Internal thoughts may be represented by VO

29. Objective and subjective visualization
CSI
Big Bang Theory
NCIS
A Beautiful Mind
Gladiator
Lord of the Rings
Rashomon
Wolfen
The Fisher King

30. Shifting narration and focalization
Narration and/or focalization can shift within a given text—perhaps between omniscient and first-person or from one character to another.
Commonly, narrative begins with character narration, then it shifts to omniscient heterodiegetic FCD
Grey’s Anatomy

31. Can You Trust the Narrator?
Sometimes narrators can’t be trusted. A narrator whose account you cannot trust is known as an “unreliable narrator.”
Limited view/Limited access
Self interest/Deception
Personal perspective
Mental instability

32. Unreliable narrators Rashomon The Usual Suspects A Clockwork Orange
The Murder of Roger Aykroyd
Goodfellas
Fight Club
Dexter
A Beautiful Mind

33. Paralepsis (Jahn)
An infraction caused by saying too much; a narrator assuming a competence he does not properly have; typically, a first-person narrator (or a historiographer) narrating what somebody else thought or what happened when he was not present.

34. Paralipsis (Jahn)
An infraction caused by omitting crucial information; saying too little; typically, an omniscient narrator pretending "not to know" what happened in her/his characters' minds, or what went on at the same time in another place, or distortively censoring a character's thought, or generally pretending to be restricted to ordinary human limitations.

35. “Paralepsis and paralipsis are instances of violations of Grice's (1975) famous principle of co-operation -- the notion that speakers (narrators) are socially obliged to follow an established set of 'maxims': to give the right amount of information, to speak the truth, to speak to a purpose (tell something worth telling), to be relevant, etc.”

36. Audiences will assume narrators are following the rules until it is demonstrated that they are not.