1. Gender IDENTITY

2. Overview Definitions of gender, gender roles and gender identity
Measurement issues
3 different conceptualizations of gender indentity in a society
Origins of gender identity

3. Gender
Gender is the cultural meaning assigned ascribed to female and male social categories in societies.
Gender identity is the term that refer to masculine and feminine self- definitions.
Gender identity is one of the possible social identities.
Gender identity has given rise to a wide range of constructs that represent culturally based masculine and feminine self-definitions.
Possesing gender-typed personality traits and interests
Having male- typical versus female-typical relationships to others
Being a member of the category of women and men, as that category is defined within a given society.
In this lesson we are going to organize these constructs in terms of three facets of masculunity and feminity.

4. Gender roles
From a social role perspective gender identity reflects different placement of men and women into societal roles.
As these are expected they are internalized and reflect themselves in self-concepts.
People differ in the extent to which they accept these normative expectations and the extent to which they integrate these culturally expected gender roles into their self-definitions.

5. Gender roles: What kind of roles do being a woman/man imply in the society?

6. Gender Identity as norms
Descriptive norms: Defined what is culturally usual for women and men in the society. Gender identity is the construal of oneself in terms of culturally typical for men and women
Man watch football woman do not. I am a woman so I do not
Injunctive norms: What is culturally ideal for women and men? In injunctive sense, gender identity is the construal of oneself in terms of the best of male and female qualities.
Woman should cook delicious food. I am a woman so I should
Man should be strong I am not a man so I am not.

7. Gender stereotypes and gender identity
Gender stereotypes is believing that man and woman should hold certain attributes. Whether people hold favorable or unfavorable attitudes toward men or women. However gender identity is the definition of yourself in terms of gender roles.
Are they linked? Weakly related
Self definitions on masculine and feminine traits are not consistently related to gender attitudes, masculine or feminine appearance or sex typed behaviour such as athletics (Spence, 1993; Spence & Buckner, 1995).

8. Individual differences as self described personal traits and attributes
Gender identity as bipolar masculinity and femininity
Terman and Miles ( 1936) was the first who formed identity scale
Femininity scores increased with liking nursing, babies whereas masculinity increased with disliking these
Then Lippa (1991) developed a method - gender diagnosticity
Gender identity is related to occupational preferences
Masculine respondents prefer occupations that deal with mainly things, female prefer to deal with people
Constantinople ( 1973) criticized the measurement as being
bipolar
Different versions of masculinity and feminity scales were not strongly related

9. Individual differences as self described personal traits and attributes
Gender identity as a separate masculine and feminine dimensions of personality traits
Bem (1974) –Bem’s sex role inventory (BSRI) represent masculinity and femininity as orthogonal dimensions
Different types of personality traits
masculine – self reliance, assertive, forcefulness
feminine – affection, sympathy, warmth
4 quadrants: Masculine, feminine, androgynous and undifferentiated

10. Individual differences as self described personal traits and attributes
Bem (1974) –Bem’s sex role inventory (BSRI) represent masculinity and femininity as orthogonal dimensions
4 quadrants
High on masculinity and low on feminity – masculine
High on feminity and low on masculinity- feminine
High on masculinity and feminity androgynous
Low on masculinity and feminity undifferentiated

11. Individual differences as self described personal traits and attributes
Spence and Helmreich (1978) developed Personal Attributes Scale (PAQ)
Defined gender identity in terms of two seperate dimensions of personality attributes that are stereotypical of women and men.
Instrumentality – decisiveness, competitiveness, activity
Expressiveness - kindness, helpfulness, understanding
Two dimension of BSRI and PAQ gained labels as agency and communion.
These two dimensions remained very popular
More recent elaborations of PAQ included negative aspects of instrumentality ( being domineering, overbearing) and expressiveness (being whiny and passive)
Discriminant validity with Big five

12. Individual differences as self described personal traits and attributes
Spence and Helmreich (1978) developed Personal Attributes Scale (PAQ)
Behaviors?
Taylor and Hall (1982) conducted meta analysis
People who have masculine gender identity show agentic behaviors
People who have feminine gender identity show communal behaviors
Behaviors in domains other than communion and agency were generally weak and inconsistent

13. Individual differences as self described personal traits and attributes
Indirect measures of personal traits and attributes
IAT ( ımplicit association test)
Results were on a bipolar dimension of masculinity versus femininity

14. Individual differences in Interdependent Self Construal
Gender identity also includes beliefs about oneself in social relationships – self construal. Definition of oneself in relation to others.
Gender identity reflects interdependent versus independent construal of self in relation to others.
Feminine versus masculine gender roles
Independent versus interdependent self construal
Differences among men and women
Baumeister and Sommer (1997) – all individuals have a need to belong but they express this need differently
Women tend to form close relationships
Men form relationships with larger collectives in which they can show power and dominance

15. Individual differences in Interdependent Self Construal
Gabriel and Gardner (1999) provided evidence
Women – listed specific close relationships such as friend, happily married
Men – listed group memberships fraternity member, black man, fan of fenerbahce

16. Individual differences in gender identification
Collective gender identity is the judgement of « I identify with women» versus « I identify with men».
Gender group identification is the categorization of oneself as female or male and importance of this definition for one’s self definition.
Some individuals are chronically more likely than others to identify with their gender group as assessed by measures of collective identity.
The tendency to define oneself as male or female varies with the salience gender in specific context.
Any examples?

17. Measuring collective identity
Direct measures
Luthanen and Crocker’s (1992) collective self esteem scale
4 items assess the importance of being a woman versus a man to one’s self image.
Wood and colleagues ( 1997) assessed how important it was for respondents to be similar to ideal man or woman.

18. Measuring collective identity
Indirect measures
IAT assesses strength of gender identity through reaction times.

19. Collective gender identification predicts behavior
Wood and colleagues (1997) --participants rated the similarity to the societal ideal for their sex ( e.g., ideal woman) and their similarity to the ldeal for the other sex.
To the extent participants had a strong gender identification they experience a boost in self esteem when they imagine themselves acting in gendered ways.

20. Collective gender identification predicts behavior
Witt and Wood (2008) assessed gender identity by asking repondents how important it was they acted like a typical man or a typical woman with respect to romantic relations – dating, flirting
Highly gender identified students interacted with other sex in typically feminine/ masculine ways.

21. Gender identity guides responding
Gender identity guides behavior via a set of biological and psychological mechanisms.

22. Direct and Indirect measures
Direct scales
Tap conscious awareness of their identity
I identify with women
Indirect scales
Tap spontaneous aspects of gender identity that may or may not be accessible to conscious verbal description. Also associative processing
Reactions times in making identity relevant judgments.
Me and they priming
Lady versus fishing road – object or person
IAT – implicit association test

23. Gender identity guides responding
Biological processes such as hormonal fluctuations act as chemical signals that promote actions in line with gender identity.
Higher levels of testosterone are associated with dominance, competitiveness, risk taking and aggression
Higher levels of oxytocin levels are related to behaviours such as parental bonding, nurturance and intimacy.
Testosterone is especially relevant for people with masculine gender identities
Oxytocin relevant for people with feminine gender identities.
Women high in masculinity on BSRI who perceived themselves as self-directed, action oriented and resourceful had higher testosterone.
Agentic women are sensitive to dominance issues in daily life and recruit this hormone as they assert dominance.

24. Gender identity guides responding
Self regulatory theory
People guide their actions toward valued standards by a matching process often linked to cybernetic feedback loop. With this feedback loop they evaluate whether their behaviour successfully matches self standards.
People with a stronger gender identity would use this identity as a standard for their own behaviour and experience more of a boost in positive affect and self- esteem when they engage in gender typical behaviour.

25. Gender identity guides responding
Self regulatory control works not only through motivational signals but also through enhanced attention, processing and recall of information to relevant gender standarts.
Bem (1981) gender identity provides a kind of lens for processing information on the basis of sex-linked associations.
Sex teyped people have a generalized readiness to process information on the basis of sex linked associations.
The capacity to engage in regulatory control gender-linked behavior emerges with maturity
Gender linked behavior appears with maturity. Children who are older than 3 have a preference to play with with same sex toys than other sex toys.

26. Gender identity guides responding
Self regulatory control works not only through motivational signals but also through enhanced attention, processing and recall of information to relevant gender standarts.
Bem (1981) gender identity provides a kind of lens for processing information on the basis of sex-linked associations.
Sex teyped people have a generalized readiness to process information on the basis of sex linked associations.
The capacity to engage in regulatory control gender-linked behavior emerges with maturity
Gender linked behavior appears with maturity. Children who are older than 3 have a preference to play with with same sex toys than other sex toys.

27. Origins of gender identity
Gender identity emerges with social-cognitive learning and biological processes.
Cognitive structures that link self with gendered activities, interests, and personality traits are learnt via socialization.
Individual differences in gender identity?
Unique experiences people may have within their society

28. Origins of gender identity
The division of labour within a society influences gender identity because it influences the perceived costs and benefits of behaviors for each sex.
Men
Agentic behaviors
Thing-centered interests and vocations
Independent and hierarchical relational styles
Women
Communal behaviours
People-centered interests and vocations
Dyadic relational styles

29. Origins of gender identity
Biological mechanisms – hormonal processes also influence the development of gender identity.
The prenatal hormonal environment
Prenatal androgen exposure with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) disorder.
Male typical toys and activity preferences among girls.
However such exposure does not have consistent effects on broader measures of gender identity.
Evolutionary psychology?
Adaptation to the environment
Man are agressive because they need to compete

30. Do we need gender identity?
Bem (1974) androgyny is advantageous for mental and behavioral flexibility
Gender identity – social identity

31. EMOTIONAL DISPOSITIONS NEUROTICISM
Neurosis: A disorder resulting from a «general affection» of the nervous system.
Chief characteristic is ANXIETY
Fundamental Trait of personality – an enduring tendency or disposition to experience negative emotional states such as anxiety, anger, guilt and depression.

32. NEUROTICISM Eysenck (1967) – neuroticism
Guilford (1975) – emotional stability
Negative emotionality negative temperament ( Watson & Tellegen, 1994)

33. NEUROTICISM Impulsivity
Costa and McCrae (1992) stated that neuroticism not only involves vulnerability to psychological distress but also proneness to irrational ideas. Measure of impulsivity is included in NEO PI-R.
Tendency to experience strong impulses frequently under conditions of negative affect.
Lack of premeditation – the tendency to think and reflect on the consequences of an act before engaging in that act.
Perseverance – The ability to begin a task and complete it despite boredom
Sensation seeking- enjoyment in taking risks, engaging in dangerous activities
IMPULSIVITY is a CORE dimension but it is a part of neuroticism

34. NEUROTICISM Emotional Instability
Feeling blue, being easily discouraged, being afraid, feeling threatened.
Volatility, emotional dysregulation __ as facets of neuroticism
Emotional stability versus emotional instability
People who are emotionally unstable characterize themselves as being higher in levels of anger, anxiousness and depressiveness than the average person.

35. NEUROTICISM Dependency Need for emotional support from others
Dependency is one of the personality disorders
Passiveness and excessive need to be taken care of that leads to submissive and clinging behaviour and fears of separation.

36. NEUROTICISM
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37. NEUROTICISM
Origins