1. Motivation and Emotion
Chapter 8
Motivation and Emotion

2. Motivation Concepts and Theories
Motivation—biological, emotional, cognitive, or social forces that activate and direct behavior.
Activation: initiation or production of behavior
Persistence: continued efforts or the determination to achieve a particular goal.
Intensity: greater vigor of responding that usually accompanies motivated behavior.
Tied to emotional process

3. Theories of Motivation
Instinct Theories: human behaviors are innate and due to evolutionary programming.
Drive Theories: behavior is motivated by the desire to reduce internal tension caused by unmet biological needs—hunger or thirst.
Body tries to maintain homeostasis—steady state.
When an imbalance is detected, a drive to restore balance is produced.
Drive—an internal condition or impulse that activates behavior to reduce a need and restore homeostasis

4. Theories of Motivation
Incentive Theories: behavior is motivated by the “pull” of external goals such as money, rewards or recognition.
Arousal Theory: people are motivated to maintain optimum level of arousal.
When arousal is low we seek to increase it, when arousal is high we seek to reduce it.
Optimum levels varies from person to person.

5. Humanistic Theory
Affected by how we percieve the world, how we think about ourselves and our beliefs about our abilities.
People are motivated to realize their highest personal potential.
Based upon the hierarch of needs.

6. Biological Motivation
Hunger Drive
When, what, how much and how often you eat is influenced by psychological, biological, social and cultural factors.

7. Energy Homeostasis Calories consumed=Calories expended
Food is broken down by enzymes, absorbed by intestines
Glucose (simple sugar), or blood sugar, is the body’s main source of energy
Glucose is converted and stored as glycogen.
The hormone insulin (pancreas) helps control glucose and regulate eating and weight
1/3 of energy is used in routine physical activities—walking, lifting, digesting
2/3 of energy is used for bodily functions—body heat, heartbeat, respiration
Basal metabolic rate—rate your body uses energy while resting
Adipose tissue (body fat) is main source of stored calories

8. Energy Balance Baseline Body Weight—typical or average body weight.
Energy homeostasis—helps you maintain your baseline body weight.
Energy balance: when your calories taken in equal your calories burned—maintin baseline body weight.
Positive energy balance: intake exceeds calories expended.
Negative energy balance: intake falls short of calories expended.

9. Regulating Eating Physiological changes: Psychological changes:
-slight drop in blood glucose
-Ghrelin: internal “signal” stimulates secretion of growth hormone by pituitary gland in brain (hunger hormone)
-increase in body temperature
-decrease in metabolism
Psychological changes:
-stimuli can be associated with anticipation of eating (operant conditioning)
-preference for certain tastes (positive incentive value)

10. Regulating Eating
Satiation: feeling of fullness and diminished desire to eat.
Triggered by stretch receptors in the stomach.
Small intestine secretes CCK.
CCK promotes satiation and reduces or stops eating.
Sensory specific satiety: reduced desire to continue consuming a particular food.

11. Regulating Eating: Long-term Signals
Leptin: hormone secreted based on the amount of body fat.
Key element in the loop that regulate energy homeostasis.
During positive energy balance, fat levels increase, as does the level of Leptin.
When it increases—food intake is decreased
Insulin
Amount secreted is related to the amount of body fat.
Triggers increase or decrease in eating
NYP, Neuropeptide Y
As Leptin and Insulin decrease NYP increases.
Triggers eating behavior, reduces metabolism and promotes fat storage.

12. Changes Over Lifespan Set-point theory: body has optimal body weight.
Baseling body weight does not always remain fixed.
Settling-point models: body weight settles balance between energy intake and expenditure.

13. Excess Weight and Obesity
Body mass index (BMI) —numerical scale indicating height in relation to weight
Obesity—condition characterized by excessive body fat and a BMI equal to or greater than 30.0
Overweight—condition characterized by BMI between 25.0 and 29.9
More than 1/3 of adult U.S. population considered to be overweight.

14. Factors in Weight Gain Lack of sleep Highly palatable foods Overeating
More variety=more consumed (“Cafeteria diet”)
Sedentary lifestyle
Variation in Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR)
Weight cycling (“yo-yo dieting”)—repeated dieting, weight loss and weight gain tends to result in higher weight and reduced BMR

15. Factors Involved in Obesity
Genetic susceptibility
Environmental conditions
Leptin resistance: condition in which higher- than-normal blood levels of the hormone leptin do not produce the expected physiological response
BMR resistance to maintaining weight loss
Role of Dopamine receptors (cause or consequence unknown)
Obese people have lower levels

16. Maslow’s Hierarch of Needs
People are motivated to to satisfy the needs at each level before moving up.
As people move up they are motivated to achieve self-actualization.
Self-actualization: full use and exploitation of talents, capacities, potentialities etc.
People seem to be fulfilling themselves and to be doing the best that they are capable of doing.
Most people do not achieve self-actualization.

18. Self-Determination Theory
Optimal human functioning can occur only if the psychological needs of autonomy, competence and relatedness are met.
Proposed by E. L. Deci and R. M. Ryan

19. Self-Determination Theory
Autonomy—need to determine, control, and organize one’s own behavior and goals
Competence—need to effectively learn and master challenging tasks
Relatedness—need to feel attached to others

20. Satisfying Needs
Intrinsic (internal) Motivation: engaging in tasks inherently satisfying, novel, or challenging to the person
Internal desire to perform a task
Extrinsic (external) Motivation: Internalizing and integrating outside reinforcers
Factors external to the individual—money, good grades and other rewards.

21. Competence and Achievement
Competence motivation—behavior aimed at demonstrating competence and exerting control in a situation
Achievement motivation—behavior aimed at excelling, succeeding, or outperforming others at some activity
Henry Murray (1935) developed Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) to test human motives

22. Culture and Achievement Motivation
Individualistic cultures more focused on personal, individual success rather than success of group; closely linked to success in competitive tasks
Collectivistic cultures’ orientation is toward the social, promoting one’s group and/or family.

23. Emotion
A complex psychological state that involves subjective experience, a physiological response, and a behavioral or expressive response.
Emotions are intense but short-lived and have a specific cause.
Emotion moves us to act, to set goals, make rational decisions.
Emotional intelligence involves the ability to manage and understand one’s own emotional experiences as well as be attuned to that of others.

24. Evolution of Emotion
Darwin argued that emotions reflect evolutionary adaptations to the problems of survival and reproduction.
Emotions help us to solve adaptive problems.
Move us toward resources and away from danger.
Emotions are crucial to human relationships.

25. Basic Emotions Fear, surprise, anger, disgust, happiness, sadness
Basic emotions are innate and “hard-wired.”
Complex emotions are a blend of many aspects of emotions.

26. Gender Differences
Both men and women tend to view women as more emotional.
Men and women do not differ in their self ratings of experience of emotions, but they do differ in their expression of emotions.

27. Culture and Emotion
General agreement across cultures about basic emotions.
Classified along two dimensions:
-Pleasant or unpleasant
-Level of activation or arousal associated with the emotion
But cultural variations do exist in the presence of a third dimension: interpersonal engagement
Some emotions result from your connections and interactions with other people.

28. Sympathetic Nervous System and Emotion
Sympathetic nervous system is aroused with emotions (fight-or-flight response)
Different emotions stimulate different responses
Fear—decrease in skin temperature (cold-feet)
Anger—increase in skin temperature (hot under the collar)

29. Brain and Emotions The Amygdala:
evaluates the significance of stimuli and generates emotional responses
generates hormonal secretions and autonomic reactions that accompany strong emotions
damage causes “psychic blindness” and the inability to recognize fear in facial expressions and voice

30. Emotion and Facial Expressions
Each basic emotion is associated with a unique facial expression.
Facial expressions are innate and “hard-wired.”
Innate facial expressions the same across many cultures.
Display rules—social and cultural rules that regulate emotional expression, especially facial expressions.
basic-emotions-do-you-know-them/

31. James-Lang Theory

32. Two-Factor Theory

33. Cognitive-Appraisal Theory
Emotions result from our appraisal of the personal meaning of events and experiences.
The same situation might elicit different emotions in different people.