1. Motivation and Emotion
Chapter 9

2. Motivational Theories and Concepts
What are motives?
Motives – needs, wants, interests, and desires that propel people in certain directions
Motivation involves goal directed behavior
Three Theories
Drive theory
Incentive theory
Evolutionary theories

3. Drive Theories
Developed by Walter Cannon’s observation that organisms seek to maintain homeostasis
Drive – hypothetical, internal state of tension that motivates an organism to engage in activities that reduce tension
Tension is viewed as the disruption of the preferred equilibrium
When individuals experience a drive, they are motivated to pursue actions that will lead to drive reduction (reduce tension)
Hunger = Discomfort Eating Fullness
Drive Motivation Drive reduction

4. Drive Theories What it cannot do!
Drive theory cannot explain all motivation
“Thirst for knowledge”
Motivation may exist without drive arousal
Eating without hunger. In this case you are motivated to eat without internal tension.

5. Incentive Theory Where does the motivation lie?
External stimuli regulates motivational states
Incentive – External goal that has the capacity to motivate behavior
Examples of incentives:
Ice cream
Money
Approval from friends
A on an exam
Promotion
Where does the motivation lie?
Drive = Lies within the organism
Incentive = Lies outside the organism

6. Evolutionary Theories
Motives are the products of evolution
Natural selection favors behaviors that maximize reproductive success
Examples of Evolutionary motives:
Affiliation
Achievement
Dominance
Aggression
Sex drive
Motives can be best understood in terms of the adaptive problems they have solved over the course of human history
Ex: Dominance in mating

7. Biological Motives vs. Social Motives
Biological Motives Hunger motive Thirst motive Sex motive Temperature motive Excretory motive Sleep and rest motive Activity motive Aggression motive
Social Motives
Achievement motive
Affiliation motive
Autonomy motive
Nurturance motive
Dominance motive
Exhibition motive (make impression on others)
Order motive (need for orderliness)
Play motive (need for fun)

8. The Motivation of Hunger and Eating
The Role of Biology
Brain Regulation
Hunger is controlled in the brain, specifically the hypothalamus
Lateral hypothalamus = turns hunger off
Ventromedial hypothalamus =
Turns hunger on
Glucose and Digestive Regulation
Food taken in is converted to glucose
Glucose is a simple sugar that is an important source of energy
Decreased blood glucose levels increase hunger and vice versa
These fluctuations are monitored in the brain by glucostats
Glucostats are neurons sensitive to glucose in the surrounding fluid

9. Environmental Factors in the Regulation of Hunger
Food availability and related cues
Humans are motivated by the anticipated pleasure of eating
Palatability:
The better food tastes, the more people consume
Quantity Available:
Amount available. People tend to consume what is in front of them
Variety:
Increase consumption related to greater variety of foods, As you eat a specific food, it’s incentive value declines (sensory-specific satiety)

10. Environmental Factors in the Regulation of Hunger
Stress and Eating
Stress leads to increased eating
Negative emotions = overeating
Learned preferences and habits
Preferences are acquired through learning
Preference for sweet tastes are present at birth and preference for high fat foods are partly genetic in origin
Classical conditioning
Observational learning

11. Sexual Motivation and Behavior The Human Sexual Response
William Masters and Olivia Johnson did groundbreaking work using recording devices to monitor bodily changes during sexual activity.
The sexual response cycle is divided into four stages
Excitement
Plateau
Orgasm
Resolution

12. Sexual Response Cycles
Excitement phase
Physical arousal escalates rapidly. In both sexes, muscle tension, respiration rate, heart rate, and blood pressure increases quickly
Vasocongestion – engorgement of blood vessels.
Produces penile erection and swollen testes in males.
Produces swelling and hardening of the clitoris, expansion of the vaginal lips, and vaginal lubrication in females

13. Sexual Response Cycles
Plateau Phase
Physiological arousal continues to build, but at a much slower pace
If foreplay is lengthy, arousal can fluctuate in both sexes.

14. Sexual Response Cycles
Orgasm
Occurs when sexual arousal reaches it’s peak intensity and is discharged in a series of muscular contractions that pulsate through the pelvic area.
Women are more likely to experience multiple orgasms in a brief period of time but are also more likely to engage in intercourse without experiencing an orgasm

15. Sexual Response Cycles
Resolution Phase
Physiological changes produced by arousal gradually subside.
If orgasm has not occurred, reduction may be relatively slow
Refractory Period
For men, a time following orgasm during which they are largely unresponsive to further stimulation. The length of the refractory period varies from minutes to hours and increases with age.

16. Gender differences in patterns of sexual activity
Men
Think about sex more often
Initiate sex more often
More frequent and varied sexual fantasies
Subjective rating of sex drive is higher
Report the desire to have sex more often
Spend vastly more money on sexual entertainment
More likely to pursue sex with a greater variety of partners
Women
Simply put….more reserved
Research indicates…..
Men would ideally like to have 18 sexual partners throughout their lifetime. Women indicate only 5.
Men were more likely to engage in sexual intercourse with women they had known only briefly.

17. The Mystery of Sexual Orientation
Sexual orientation – Refers to a person’s preference for emotional and sexual relationships with individuals of the same, the other, or either sex.
Heterosexuals – seek emotional-sexual relationships with members of the other sex
Bisexuals – seek emotional-sexual relationships with members of either sex
Homosexuals – seek emotional-sexual relationships with members of the same sex

18. Are we exclusively heterosexual or homosexual???
Sexual orientation is viewed on a continuum.

19. What does the research show?

20. The Elements of Emotional Experience
Emotion involves three elements
A subjective conscious experience (the cognitive component) accompanied by…
Bodily arousal (the physiological component) and…
Characteristic overt expression (behavioral component)

21. Theories of Emotion James-Lange Theory
Theory asserts the opposite of the fight or flight response. This theory asserts that the perception of autonomic arousal leads to the conscious experience of fear.
Different patterns of autonomic activation leads to the experience of different emotions
Autonomic Specificity - different emotions are accompanied by different
patterns of autonomic
activation.

22. Theories of Emotions Cannon-Bard
Emotions occur when the thalamus sends signals simultaneously to the cortex and the autonomic nervous system.
Clearly, these theorists were a bit
off at pinpointing the thalamus as
the center of emotion
Modern theorists agree that
emotions originate in
sub-cortical areas and people
do not infer emotions from
different patterns of
autonomic activation

23. Schacter’s Two-Factor Theory
Theories of Emotions
Schacter’s Two-Factor Theory
The experience of emotion depends on two factors:
Autonomic arousal
Cognitive interpretation of the arousal
When you experience psychological arousal, you search your environment for an explanation.
People look to external rather than internal cues to differentiate and label their specific emotion

24. Theories of Emotion Comparison Chart

25. Exploring the Ingredients of Happiness
Factors that DO NOT predict happiness
Money – Correlation of between income and happiness.
Age – Found to be unrelated. Age accounts for less than 1% of people’s happiness. There is always something to worry about, they vary with age.
Parenthood – Parents worry more and experience more marital problems than childless couples.
Intelligence and Attractiveness – No correlation
Moderately good
predictors of happiness
Health – Moderate positive correlation (.32). People adapt to their health problems and take good health for ranted.
Social Activity – Interpersonal relations do appear to contribute to people’s happiness
Religion – Modest correlation

26. Exploring the Ingredients of Happiness
Strong Predictors of Happiness
Love and Marriage – people rate being in love as the critical ingredient of happiness. Martial status is also a key correlate. Among both men and women , married people are happier than single or divorced people.
Work – Job satisfaction has a substantial association with general happiness. Unemployment also has a strong negative effect on well-being.
Genetics and Personality – Best predictor of future happiness is past happiness. Predictors are not external, but internal (persons outlook on life).