1. Ch. 4: Strategies of Systematic Observational Research

2. The Researcher as Observer
Importance of systematic observation
Qualitative vs. quantitative research
Qualitative: Raw data is in non-numerical form
Quantitative: Raw data is in numerical form

3. Observing While Participating
Participant Observation: The observer plays a role in the situation under study.
Ethnography
Use of participant observation in qualitative research to study “cultures.”
Procedures developed to minimize biases in observations and interpretations.

4. Some General Questions Useful in Ethnographic Studies
What is the purpose of the activity?
What procedures are used to perform the activity?
What are the time and space requirements of the activity?
What are the personnel requirements of the activity?
What is the nature of the social organization?

5. Secondary Observations
Use of archival material rather than firsthand observations of behavior.
Content analysis used to classify and evaluate archival material.

6. General Guidelines for Doing a Content Analysis
Obtain satisfactorily high intercoder reliability.
Use specific categories and units relevant to the questions or hypotheses.
Employ a good sampling procedure.

7. Evaluating Content Analysis
Disadvantages
Limited by quality, dependability, and relevance of material being analyzed
Advantages
Requires little more than commonsense logic
Inexpensive methodology
A “safe” methodology
Forces close scrutiny of material being evaluated and classified.

8. Experimental Simulations
Goal is to simulate (or mimic) a causal relationship in a controlled setting.
Setting allows for the manipulation of the causal condition.
Microworld simulations use computer-generated environments.

9. Rival Interpretations and Hypotheses
Alternative explanations for the reported results.
Goal is to eliminate flaws and alternative explanations in one’s study.
Requires critical evaluation of the study’s procedures.

10. Types of Experimentation
Laboratory Experiment: Manipulation/ modification done in a highly controlled setting.
Field Experiment: Manipulation/ modification occurs in real world setting.

11. Types of Realism
Mundane Realism: How much does aspects of the experiment resemble the real world?
Experimental Realism: To what extent are participants drawn into or affected by the experimental treatment?

12. Reactivity Issue
Reactive observations affect the behavior being observed.
Nonreactive observations do not.
Use of concealed measurement and partial concealment are examples of nonreactive observations.

13. Webb’s Categories of Unobtrusive Measures
Archival records
Physical traces
Simple observations
Contrive observations

14. Using Judges as Observers
Independent judges can be used to assist in describing and categorizing ongoing events or existing records of events.
Judges use checklists or tally sheets to impose structure on observations.

15. Ways of Selecting Judges
Use intuition.
Consult the research literature for relevant criteria to help in choice.
Do pilot-testing.