1. The Rhetorical Situation and Appeals

2. Rhetoric:
Aristotle defined rhetoric as “The faculty of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion.”
Writing to persuade

3. The Rhetorical Situation
Analyzing the rhetorical situation is always a good place to start.

4. Rhetorical Situation

5. Rhetorical Appeals
Aristotle discussed authors using the tools of rhetoric to persuade an audience.
He called these tools rhetorical appeals.
Three main appeals: ethos, pathos, logos

7. Ethos Ethos- Greek for “character.”
This is used to demonstrate that the speaker is trustworthy.
Often emphasize shared values between the speaker and the audience.
For example, when parents speak to other parents in the same community, they share a concern for the well being of their children.

8. Ethos
Ethos can also be established immediately through someone’s title or reputation.
Example, the Prime Minister, expert testimony, scholars in a particular field, etc.
If a person is speaking in a field in which they are an expert, they automatically bring ethos to the text by title or credentials.

9. Ethos
In other cases, a person can bring ethos to the text by what they say.
Can be done by sounding reasonable, knowledgeable, acknowledging other opinions, being well informed, etc.
The speaker’s ethos- expertise, knowledge, experience, sincerity, common purpose with audience, or a combination of these factors, gives the audience a reason for listening to a person on this subject.

10. Logos
Logos is Greek for “embodied thought,” and it means to think logically.
Speakers appeal to logos, or reason by offering clear, rational ideas.
In writing, this means having a clear main idea and using specific details, examples, facts, statistics, or expert testimony to back it up.

11. Logos
Evidence from expert sources and authorities, facts, and quantitative data can be quite persuasive if selected carefully and presented accurately.
Information can be represented in charts, graphs, maps, etc., but more often writers weave this evidence into their writing.

12. Logos
Another way to appeal to logos is to acknowledge the counterargument- to anticipate the objections of opposing views.
This does not poke a hole in your argument, in fact you are more vulnerable if you ignore ideas that counter your own.

13. Pathos Pathos is an appeal to emotions, values, and desires.
It can also be an appeal to fear and prejudices.

14. Pathos An argument that appeals exclusively to pathos is weak.
These types of arguments are typically propagandistic
(ideas purposefully spread to harm a person or idea. Usually in deceitful manner).

15. Pathos
An effective speaker or writer knows the power of evoking an audience’s emotions through tools such as figurative language and personal anecdotes
Words with powerful connotations (the feelings associated with a word beyond the dictionary definition) also elicit an emotional response.

16. Pathos
You can appeal to pathos through use of vivid imagery in your writing.
So, it should be no surprise that images frequently serve the same purpose.
A well placed, well chosen photograph, for example, could lend a significant emotional response from the reader.

17. Pathos Another way to appeal to pathos is through humor.
Our first reaction to information that challenges what we think or believe is to get defensive.
So, advertisers use humor to rhetorically wrap a challenge to our beliefs in something that makes us feel good.

18. Pathos
The use of humor can go for the idea being presented, but it can also be used for the person who is presenting the ideas as well.
A person may use humor or irony to make a point without sounding as though they are “preaching” about the topic.

19. Combining Ethos, Pathos, and Logos
Most authors do not rely on a single type of appeal to persuade their audience.
Appeals should be combined to form an effective argument.
The appeals themselves are inextricably bound together.

20. Combining Ethos, Pathos, and Logos
For example: If you lay out your argument logically, it helps build your ethos.
It’s only logical to listen to an expert on a subject, so your ethos is laying the foundation for your logos.

21. Combining Ethos, Pathos, and Logos
It is also possible to build your ethos based on pathos.
For example, who better to speak on the pain of losing a loved one than someone who has personally gone through it?
They are building their ethos, through a topic filled with pathos.

22. Combining Ethos, Pathos, and Logos
Another example: The best political satirists are both perfectly logical and completely hilarious.
Thus, they appealing to logos and pathos simultaneously.

24. Story of an Hour Prompt
Authors frequently use literature to express opinions on controversial topics. They usually try to make their points subtly, as overt preaching often has a negative effect on an audience. Read the following short story and determine the theme and tone of the story. In a well-organized essay, explain how Chopin subtly reveals her attitudes, and explain why a large portion of her 1894 readers might object.