1. Groups and Organizations
SOCIOLOGY
Groups and Organizations

2. 6. Groups and Organizations
Understanding Groups
Understanding Organizations
Case Study: Bureaucracy and the Space Shuttle Columbia
The Changing Workplace
Social Policy and Organizations

3. What is a group?
Group: any number of people with similar norms, values, and expectations who interact with one another on a regular basis
Human beings are very group oriented.
Groups make up social environments – you find groups EVERYWHERE
Human beings are very sensitive to ANYTHING and EVERYTHING in their environments including groups
Groups influence ideas, attitudes, behaviors
Groups can create and maintain a culture and a culture’s ideas, attitudes, norms, values and behaviors.

4. Structural Functionalism Theory/Perspective of Groups
Life in groups helps to regulate and give meaning to individual experience, contributing to social cohesion and stability
Group membership helps individuals with common goals and interests to connect to resources, opportunities, make progress and achieve status based on group affiliations

5. Conflict Theory/Perspective of Groups
Group membership is often the basis for the distribution of rewards, privileges and opportunities in our society. An individual may be treated preferentially or prejudicially based on his or her group membership
Groups have different agendas and those groups with the most access to resources and opportunities are often the groups that have the greatest amount of value and power to wield to promote their agendas.

6. Symbolic Interactionism Theory and Perspective of Groups
Group norms, values and dynamics are generated situationally, in interactions with other members.
Meaning to certain actions/behaviors are validated or invalidated in group interactions

7. Understanding Groups Types of Groups Primary and Secondary Groups
Primary Group: small group with intimate, face-to-face association and cooperation
Secondary Group: formal, impersonal groups with little social intimacy or mutual understanding

8. Understanding Groups
Table 6-1. Comparison of Primary and Secondary Groups

9. Understanding Groups Types of Groups In-Groups and Out-Groups
In-groups: any groups or categories to which people feel they belong
Out-groups: any groups or categories to which people feel they do not belong
Conflict between in-groups and out-groups can turn violent on a personal as well as political level.

10. Understanding Groups Types of Groups Reference Groups
Any group that individuals use as standard for evaluating their own behavior
Reference groups set and enforce standards of conduct and belief

11. Understanding Groups Studying Small Groups
Small Group: group small enough for all members to interact simultaneously
Size of a Group
Smaller groups have greater interaction opportunities
Coalitions: temporary or permanent alliances geared toward common goal
Dyad: a two-member group
Triad: a three-member group

12. Understanding Groups Coalitions
Temporary or permanent alliances geared toward common goal
Groupthink
Collective pressure to conform to the predominant line of thought

13. Understanding Organizations
Formal Organizations and Bureaucracies
Formal Organization: special-purpose group designed and structured for maximum efficiency

14. Power of Groups – Belonging, conformity and reach
Group cohesion
Group think
Social influence
Compliance
Identification
Internalization
Social loafing
Social identity theory
Power and authority
Social capital, social ties, and social network

15. Case Study: Group think and the Space Shuttle Columbia
In February, 2003, space shuttle Columbia disintegrated as it reentered earth’s atmosphere
Accident Investigation Board identified two causes
Foam struck spacecraft’s wing during liftoff
NASA’s bureaucratic organizational culture

16. Experiments on the power and influence of groups
Stanford Prison Experiment
Milgram Experiment
Asch Experiment

17. Understanding Organizations
Characteristics of a Bureaucracy
Bureaucracy: component of formal organization that uses rules and hierarchical ranking to achieve efficiency
Ideal Type Bureaucracy
Division of labor
Hierarchy of authority

18. Understanding Organizations
Characteristics of a Bureaucracy
Division of labor
Alienation: condition of estrangement or dissociation from the surrounding society
Trained Incapacity: workers become so specialized that they develop blind spots and fail to notice obvious problems

19. Understanding Organizations
Characteristics of a Bureaucracy
Hierarchy of Authority
Written rules and regulations
Employment based on technical qualifications
Goal Displacement: overzealous conformity to official regulations
Peter Principle: every employee within a hierarchy tends to rise to his or her level of incompetence (Peter and Jull 1969)

20. Understanding Organizations
Table 6-2. Characteristics of a Bureaucracy

21. Understanding Organizations
Characteristics of a Bureaucracy
Bureaucratization as Process
Bureaucratization: process by which group, organization, or social movement becomes increasingly bureaucratic

22. Understanding Organizations
Characteristics of a Bureaucracy
Oligarchy: Rule by a Few
Iron Law of Oligarchy: describes how even a democratic organization will eventually develop into a bureaucracy ruled by a few (called an oligarchy)

23. Understanding Organizations
Bureaucracy and Organizational Culture
Classical Theory: also known as Scientific Management Approach); workers motivated almost entirely by economic rewards
Human Relations Approach: role of people, communication and participation within a bureaucracy emphasized

24. Understanding Organizations
Voluntary Associations
Organizations established on basis of common interest
Members volunteer or even pay to participate
“Formal organizations” and “voluntary organizations” not mutually exclusive

25. Understanding Organizations
Figure 6-1. Membership in Voluntary Associations in the United States
Sources: J. Davis and Smith 2001:347

26. The Changing Workplace
Organizational Restructuring
Formal organizations experimenting with new ways of getting the job done since late 20th century
Collective decision making
Minimal hierarchy
Work teams

27. The Changing Workplace
Telecommuting
Employees who work full- or part-time at home rather than in an outside office
Number of telecommuters increased from 8.5 million in 1995 to 28 million in 2001 (Donald B. Davis and Polonko 2001)
Telecommuting may move society further along the continuum from Gemeinschaft to Gesellschaft

28. The Changing Workplace
Electronic Communication
efficient, rapidly communicated, and democratic
Gives an organization the benefit of experiences and views of more of its workforce
Does not convey body language
Leaves permanent record
Can be monitored

29. Social Policy and Organizations
The State of the Unions
The Issue
What diminished importance of organized labor unions?
Have unions perhaps outlived their usefulness in a rapidly changing global economy dominated by the service industry?

30. Social Policy and Organizations
The State of the Unions
The Setting
Labor Unions: organized workers sharing either the same skill or the same employer
The experience of unions varies widely in different countries

31. Social Policy and Organizations
The State of the Unions
The Setting
Reasons given for decline of labor unions:
Changes in type of industry
Growth in part-time jobs
The legal system
Globalization
Employer offensive
Union rigidity and bureaucratization

32. Social Policy and Organizations
The State of the Unions
Sociological Insights
Marxists and functionalists view unions as logical response to emergence of impersonal, large-scale, formal, and often alienating organizations
Conflict theorists note the longer union leaders are in office the less responsive they are to the needs and demands of the rank and file
Many union employees encounter role conflict

33. Social Policy and Organizations
The State of the Unions
Policy Initiatives
Major barrier to union growth exists in 21 states with so-called right to work laws
Debate over campaign finance reform in Congress in 2001 raised question of whether labor unions should use dues to support a particular candidate or promote a position

34. Social Policy and Organizations
Figure 6-2. Union Membership
in the United States