LEARNING Stage 2 Psychology

LEARNING Stage 2 Psychology
Information quoted and adapted from ‘Psychology for South Australia Stage 2’ 1st edition. Spencer & Hartstone John Wiley & Sons Australia Ltd

Learning Learning occurs in many areas of the brain, and memories are stored in the brain in a variety of places. We will examine the three ways in which animals (including humans) learn, how we can learn to be helpless, as well as behaviour modification and therapies to help learn positive thinking and behaviour. Topic focuses on the Basic Processes level of explanation of behaviour.

LEARNING Definition: to gain knowledge and/or skills by study, experience or being taught. There are learnt and unlearnt behaviours: Unlearnt Behaviours Reflexes - Involuntary response to stimuli Fixed action patterns - Stereotyped pattern of behaviour shown by all members of a species Maturational changes - Behaviour changes that are a result of an organism maturing

LEARNING Learnt Behaviours
There are learnt and unlearnt behaviours (cont.): Learnt Behaviours Habituation Cessation of reaction to stimuli in response to continued exposure to it. E.g. unexpected sound > turn our heads to direction of sound Sound continues > gradually learn to ignore it Adaptation Alteration to behaviour in order to better fit environment E.g. Cold environment > body shivers in an effort to maintain body temperature

LEARNING Three main ways in which human beings learn:
Classical Conditioning (learning via association) Operant Conditioning (learning via reward and punishment) Observational Learning (learning via observing)

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
Learning

A process of behaviour modification by which a subject comes to respond to a previously neutral stimulus that has been repeatedly presented along with an unconditioned stimulus that produces a response. The association between two stimuli that are normally unrelated, that cause a conditioned response. Discovered by Russian scientist, Ivan Pavlov in 1903. Was originally studying digestion in dogs, however noticed that the dogs started to salivate before the food was presented to them.

Neutral stimulus No response Neutral Stimulus: Dexter does not have a natural response to the bell, therefore no effect.

Unconditioned stimulus (food) Unconditioned response (salivating)

Neutral stimulus Unconditioned response (salivation) Unconditioned stimulus

Repetition of pairing UCS & NS

Classical conditioning achieved Conditioned stimulus (bell) Conditioned response (salivation) …even without food!

Classical Conditioning - Pavlov
Recap Bell started out as a neutral stimulus Food was an unconditioned stimulus When Dexter salivated upon seeing the food, it was an unconditioned response No learning had occurred Now lets recap. Read out above slide.

Classical Conditioning - Pavlov
Repeatedly pair the sound of the bell + sight of the food, Dexter was eventually be conditioned to salivate upon hearing the bell The bell is now a conditioned stimulus Dexter salivating to the sound of the bell is now a conditioned response Behaviour has been learnt Behaviour modification possible through conditioning Read out slide above.

LITTLE ALBERT EXPERIMENT
Conducted by John B. Watson in 1920 Wanted to investigate if fear could be controlled and/or manipulated in humans Infant chosen given the nickname ‘Little Albert’

LITTLE ALBERT Neutral Stimulus We will use Dexter for this simulation. We are presenting Dexter with a stimulus here – a bell. If we ring the bell, there will be no response from Dexter. Dogs, just like humans are not naturally wired to have a response to a bell. Without conditioning there is no response, therefore the bell is a neutral stimulus. We can repeatedly ring the bell, with no response from Dexter. No response Neutral Stimulus: Little Albert did not have a negative reaction to the white rat. Gained a neutral response from Albert.

LITTLE ALBERT Unconditioned stimulus (striking steel bar)
Now lets introduce Dexter to a new stimulus, the sight of food and water. Dexter's natural response to the sight of food and water is to salivate. He wasn’t conditioned to have this reaction, so it is innate or in-born and automatic, not taught or conditioned. Therefore this stimulus is called an unconditioned stimulus and Dexter's response, salivating, is called and unconditioned response. Unconditioned stimulus (striking steel bar) Unconditioned response (crying/fear)

LITTLE ALBERT Neutral stimulus Unconditioned response (Crying/fear)
Now lets’ simulate Pavlov's experiment. We’ll ring the bell (ring), and then present Dexter with food and water. Dexter salivates – not because of the bell, which is a neutral stimulus, but because of the food, the unconditioned stimulus. Unconditioned response (Crying/fear) Unconditioned stimulus (Loud noise)

LITTLE ALBERT Repetition of pairing (bell + food)
Now we’re going to repeat this process. (ring bell). If we repeatedly ring the bell immediately before presenting Dexter with food, he will be conditioned to respond to the bell.

LITTLE ALBERT Classical conditioning achieved
Now Dexter will salivate upon hearing the bell, even in the absence of food (ring). This response has been conditioned. It is now a conditioned response, and the bell has become a conditioned stimulus. Conditioned stimulus (White rat) Conditioned response (crying/fear) ...even without striking the bar!

LITTLE ALBERT Recap White rat started out as a neutral stimulus
Loud noise was an unconditioned stimulus When Albert started crying upon hearing the unpleasant noise, it was an unconditioned response No learning had occurred Now lets recap. Read out above slide.

LITTLE ALBERT Repeatedly pair the unpleasant sound + sight of white rat, Albert was eventually be conditioned to cry/be fearful upon seeing the white rat The white rat is now a conditioned stimulus Albert crying to the sight of the white rat is now a conditioned response Behaviour has been learnt Behaviour modification possible through conditioning Read out slide above.

Neutral stimulus (NS) A stimulus that does not evoke a response at first, however becomes a conditioned stimulus through association with the unconditioned stimulus. Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) Any stimulus that can evoke a response without going through any previous learning. Unconditioned response (UCR) A response evoked by an unconditioned stimulus without going through any prior learning. Conditioned stimulus (CS) Formerly neutral stimulus that after association with an unconditioned stimulus, produces a conditioned response. Conditioned response (CR) The learnt response to a conditioned stimulus.

TASK Classical conditioning worksheet
We will go through the answers as a class

VIDEO CLIPS – Classical conditioning – the basics – Classical conditioning – Ivan Pavlov up to 2:40 – Little Albert

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING PRINCIPLES
Classical conditioning is a complex form of learning in animals, however there are other variables that have an impact on the strength and effectiveness of the learning. We will explore the following: Stimulus generalisation Stimulus discrimination Extinction Spontaneous recovery Contiguity Contingency Preparedness

STIMULUS GENERALISATION
The transfer of a response learned to one stimulus to another similar stimulus. Example: Dexter salivating to a horn/tone similar to the CS bell – elicits the same CR despite separate CS. Example: Little Albert became fearful of all white, fluffy objects – elicits the same CR despite separate CS.

STIMULUS DISCRIMINATION
The process of learning to distinguish a particular stimulus from another stimuli. Opposite of stimulus generalisation Example: Dexter only salivates to the sound of the hand bell, not a horn/tone that sounds similar. Example: Little Albert only becomes fearful at the sight of the white rat – able to discriminate between other white fluffy objects.

EXTINCTION A reduction or loss in the strength or rate of a conditioned response when the UCS is withheld. Example: Dexter’s CR could eventually cease if not continuously paired with the UCS (food). Example: Little Albert’s CR of fear could eventually cease of the UCS (loud noise) is not paired with white rat.

SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY Reappearance, after a rest period, of an extinguished conditioned response. Example: Dexter is presented with pairing of food + bell after extinction > spontaneous recovery of CR (salivation) Example: Little Albert is presented with pairing of white rat + loud noise > spontaneous recovery of CR (fear)

CONTIGUITY The time interval in the UCS-CS pairing.
Classical Conditioning is most effective when the time interval is small 0.5 seconds is ideal If longer, the association between the stimuli won’t be strong enough to elicit strong CR. Example: If food was presented to Dexter one hour after the bell was rung, would not make association. Example: If loud noise occurred one hour after presenting Albert with white rat, would not make association.

CONTINGENCY Predictability of occurrence of one stimulus from the presence of another. In order for strong CR to occur, CS needs to remain predictable and consistent. Example: If Dexter received a different noise each time he was presented with food, CR not as likely to occur. Example: If Little Albert heard different noises of different volumes, CR not as likely to occur.

PREPAREDNESS Associations that are learned more readily/easily than others. Often relate to our survival instincts regarding phobias. i.e. why phobias such as spiders, snakes and heights are more common – more easily learnt due to compromise in survival. Evolutionary history - organisms that learn to fear environmental threats faster had a survival and reproductive advantage. Also explains why taste aversions relating to classical conditioning are learnt so easily – learn that certain foods will cause danger to survival.

VIDEO CLIPS For a bit of fun:
– Classical conditioning – The office – Pavlov cartoon

ACQUISITION AND PERFORMANCE
Acquisition: Classical conditioning – the process of pairing the UCS with the CS Performance: Classical conditioning – CR occurs without the presence of the UCS

ACTIVITY Learning Practical
This practical will bring together everything we have learnt so far about classical conditioning. Get into groups of 3 or 4 Assign roles to each group member from the following: experimenter, participant, data recorder (if 4 in a group there can be 2 experimenters.) Experimenters and data recorders – come to the front to receive instructions from teacher Follow instructions of practical as indicated

TASK Worksheet – past exam questions on classical conditioning.

OPERANT CONDITIONING Learning

OPERANT CONDITIONING Learning that occurs in the context of experiencing or avoiding, rewards or punishments contingent upon performing a behaviour. Any process that increases the frequency of a behaviour is called reinforcement.

OPERANT CONDITIONING Main pioneer in operant conditioning was B.F. Skinner Through operant conditioning was able to observe pigeons learning via reward through performing desirable behaviours. – Skinner box

OPERANT CONDITIONING Reinforcement
Any process that increases the frequency of a targeted behaviour. Operant conditioning is effective when behaviour is reinforced Initially reinforcement can be continuous For long term behaviour modification, reinforcement can not be predicted.

REINFORCEMENT Reinforcers
Increases frequency and strength in desired behaviour An increase in the target behaviour must result Positive Reinforcement Pleasant stimulus added after a behaviour E.g. Study hard (behaviour) > getting good grade (pleasant stimulus) > study harder (increased behaviour) Negative Reinforcement Unpleasant stimulus removed by a behaviour E.g. Taking a Panadol (behaviour) to remove headache (unpleasant stimulus) results in taking Panadol next time you have a headache (increased behaviour)

PUNISHMENT Punishment
Stimulus or event that decreases the frequency or occurrence of behaviour that it follows. Useful for short term behaviour change, not long term. Only reinforcements are affective for long term behaviour modification.

PUNISHMENTS Punishments
Reduces frequency and strength of undesired behaviour Positive Punishment Unpleasant stimulus added after an undesired behaviour E.g. Speeding fine (unpleasant stimulus) after speeding (undesired behaviour) reduces speeding in the future (behaviour change) Negative Punishment Pleasant stimulus removed after an undesirable behaviour E.g. Getting licence taken away (pleasant stimulus removed) after speeding (undesirable behaviour) results in reduced speeding in the future (behaviour change)

REMEMBER! Reinforcement = increases behaviour
Positive reinforcement/punishment = something is added Negative reinforcement/punishment = something is taken away Reinforcement = increases behaviour Punishment = decreases behaviour

REMEMBER! Reinforcement = increases behaviour
Punishment = decreases behaviour

OPERANT CONDITIONING Let’s do some examples...
(a) Jenny is a student who performs well in her assignments and tests. As a result of her good work, she is given extra pocket money from her parents when she shows them her results. As a result, Jenny works harder at achieving high grades. State the name of this process Answer: Positive reinforcement Now lets do some examples... Read out, give answer and why.

OPERANT CONDITIONING Examples (cont.)
(b) Nick has found that taking a hot water bottle to bed during cold nights helps to keep him warm. As a result, he does this every winter. State the name of this process Answer: Negative reinforcement Read out, give answer and why.

(c) Cassandra constantly goes out without telling her parents where she is going and when she will be coming back. As a result, she has been grounded for a month. State the name of this process Answer: Positive punishment Read out, give answer and why.

Kate likes to listen to heavy metal music very loudly in her room, even after her father has asked her repeatedly to stop. As a result, Kate’s dad has taken away her CD player. State the name of this process Answer: Negative punishment Read out, give answer and why.

VIDEO – The big bang theory – Sheldon trains Penny Watch out for the mistake!!!!! The big bang theory – acknowledging mistake made

TASK Worksheet on reinforcements

VIDEO CHALLENGE! Get in to pairs/group of three
Your group will be randomly allocated a concept of classical or operant conditioning Make a short film clip of the scenario you have been allocated. You can do this at home, school etc. on your phones. The clips will be shown in lesson next week.

SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT
Receiving reinforcement for every behaviour is called continuous reinforcement. Not an everyday occurrence to increase behaviours. Intermittent (or partial) reinforcement much more common. Four schedules of intermittent reinforcement: Fixed interval Fixed ratio Variable interval Variable ratio

FIXED INTERVAL When an organism will be reinforced for a response only after a fixed time interval. As long as the behaviour is performed at least once, the subject receives reinforcement. Example: Salaried workers get paid once a fortnight on the same day (no matter how hard they work).

FIXED RATIO When an organism must make a certain number of responses in order to receive reinforcement. Depends on the number or ratio of responses being completed before receiving the reward. Example: A fruit picker receives payment if they fill up 10 buckets.

VARIABLE INTERVAL When the reinforcement is given to a response after a specific, unpredictable amount of time has passed. Example: A person fishing cannot predict when they will catch a fish.

VARIABLE RATIO When the reinforcement is given after an unpredictable number of responses made by the organism. Example: Poker machines – player cannot predict which press of the button will result in a win. Schedule used in all forms of gambling – why it is so addictive. Most difficult reinforcement to extinguish.

REMEMBER! INTERVAL = TIME RATIO = RESPONSES/BEHAVIOURS FIXED = SET
VARIABLE = UNKNOWN

TASK Complete first worksheet as a class
Complete second worksheet individually – will go through the answers before the end of the lesson

CONTIGUITY Also important in operant conditioning.
Reinforcement needs to be given/received as soon as possible after desired behaviour has been performed for behaviour to continue. Punishment needs to be given/received as soon as possible after undesired behaviour has been performed for behaviour to decline.

CONTINGENCY Also important in operant conditioning.
Reinforcer needs to be consistent for behaviour to continue. Punishment needs to be consistent for behaviour to decline.

PREPAREDNESS Associations of reward/punishment that are learned more easily than others. Ensures long term survival by learning rewards and avoiding punishments.

OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING

Crash Course Video Clip

Based on principles of learning through observing others perform desired behaviour Learning via observation Pioneers in observational learning were Bandura and Walters in the late 1950s Interested in aggression in children and how this is developed Were not convinced that conditioning had taken place

Bandura and Walters developed famous ‘Bobo Doll’ experiment in 1961. Young children between 3 – 6 years of age saw an unknown adult model act aggressively or non aggressively towards an inflatable clown called a ‘Bobo Doll’. The child's subsequent behaviour was evaluated for aggressive and non aggressive behaviour.

Children in the control group > observed adult model playing with children’s construction set, ignoring the Bobo doll. Children in the experimental group witnessed adult model punching, kicking, tossing and verbally abusing Bobo Doll. Results showed that children in the experimental group reproduced significant aggression towards the Bobo doll when presented with it.

Subjects being observed is called ‘model’ Subject observing the model’s behaviour is called ‘observer’ Factors of observational learning (ARRM): Attention Retention Reproduction Motivation

ATTENTION In order for learning to occur, observer must pay attention to the models behaviour. Example: young child paying attention to parent washing the dishes.

RETENTION Observer codes observed behaviour information into long term memory. Example: remembering parents method/process of washing the dishes.

REPRODUCTION Observer must be able to reproduce model’s behaviour.
Example: Observer (young child) must be physically and mentally capable of recreating models behaviour of washing dishes.

MOTIVATION Observer expects positive reinforcement for modelled behaviour. Example: model (parent) praises child (observer ) for washing dishes. Reinforcement can be external (object reward) or internal (sense of accomplishment).

OTHER FACTORS OF OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
Gender of model Observers tend to reproduce same sex model Social Status of model The higher the social status, the more their behaviour will be reproduced by observer Relationship between model and observer The closer the relationship, the more the observer wants to impress the model and receive positive reinforcement Consequences after models behaviour If consequence is positive, behaviour will be reproduced by observer more willingly

PHOBIAS AND FEARS Fear: an unpleasant emotion caused by the threat of danger, pain, or harm. Phobia: an extreme or irrational fear of or aversion to something Mere exposure – being exposed indirectly to the stimulus i.e. watching it on television. Direct experience – having a negative direct interaction with the stimuli – how more serious phobias develop Observational learning – watching a model have a negative reaction to a stimuli i.e. parents are afraid of spiders so observer (child) fears them too.

DOCUMENTARY – EXTREME PHOBIAS

PSYCHOLOGICAL INTERVENTIONS
Learning

SYSTEMATIC DESENSITISATION
Form of behaviour therapy used to treat phobias and other behaviour problems involving anxiety. Based on Classical Conditioning Aim is to condition relaxation with feared item/object Three steps involved: Relaxation techniques Developing anxiety hierarchy Pairing

Step 1: Learning relaxation techniques Client is taught deep breathing, muscle relaxation and sometimes meditation to relax the body

Step 2: Developing an anxiety hierarchy Often a list, which lists the least threatening situation to most threatening situation in relation to fear causing stimulus. Example: Spider hierarchy 1. looking at picture of spider (least) 2. seeing a spider on TV 3. seeing a spider in a pet store 4. holding a glass box with a spider in it 5. holding a spider (most)

Step 3: Pairing Pairing the relaxation techniques with the items in the anxiety hierarchy. Ultimately, the client will be conditioned to have relaxation instead of fear as conditioned response.

TASK Choose a fear/phobia either in general or that you have, and develop your own anxiety hierarchy, starting with the least threatening situation to most threatening. You may discuss with your neighbour if you wish.

COGNITIVE BEHAVIOUR THERAPY (CBT)
Used extensively in the treatment of anxiety and depression Most recognised and effective psychological therapy Teaches client to understand, manage and change their distorted thoughts and actions Helps client become aware of thought distortions if they occur again Improved skills of awareness, introspection and evaluation – coping strategies Reduces likelihood of relapse Often quicker success than systematic desensitisation

CLIP - JACKIE https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BzNSYw7xwpU – from 2.27

BEHAVIOUR MODIFICATION
The use of conditioning or reinforcement to alter behaviour. Based on operant conditioning Desirable behaviour is reinforced with a reward that is more desirable than the previous, unwanted reinforcer. Example: Someone who wants to give up smoking could reward themselves with a chocolate each time they refuse a cigarette. Chocolate is more desirable than cigarette to this person > behaviour modification going to be effective.

Example – increasing time spent doing homework Establish desired behaviour goal – spending 2 hours a night on homework Establish reinforcement – one chocolate for every half hour of study Start program After behaviour is established it may be necessary to change to intermittent schedule of reinforcement to continue behaviour and may need to change reinforcement so it doesn’t become predictable Eventually person should be able to perform behaviour continuously without need for reinforcement

Often used in primary schools to help children learn desirable behaviours. Charts will be made with small reinforcers such as stickers, stamps etc.

TASK Read page 100 and complete learning activity 4.4

LEARNED HELPLESSNESS Results when a person or animal is prevented repeatedly from avoiding some aversive stimulus and becomes passive and depressed. Main researcher was Martin Seligman in the 1970s. Conducted research on dogs where they were continuously exposed to electric shocks that were unavoidable.

LEARNED HELPLESSNESS Eventually the dogs were given the opportunity to escape the shocks by jumping over a barrier, however most dogs did not and simply lay down and took the shocks. Seligman argued that the dogs had learned to be helpless. Similar observations in humans who have depression > reduced motivation.

Video Clips

REVISION    Read page 100 and complete learning activity 4.4
Read pages 88 – 96 and complete learning activity 4.1

What you may be examined on! Learning
AREAS OF LEARNING What you may be examined on! Learning

AREAS OF LEARNING Components in classical conditioning (unconditioned and conditioned stimuli and unconditioned and conditioned responses); components in operant conditioning (positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, punishment, schedules of reinforcement, and preparedness); the importance of timing in classical and operant conditioning (contiguity and contingency); stimulus generalisation, stimulus discrimination, and extinction; the factors that influence learning through observation; and the distinction between the acquisition and performance of a learned response

AREAS OF LEARNING Psychological principles concerning learning in everyday experiences and events (e.g. coin deposit incentives to return shopping trolleys, customer loyalty programs, classical conditioning in advertising, and explicit and implicit observational learning from television programs) and in psychological interventions, including behaviour modification and the systematic desensitisation of phobias

AREAS OF LEARNING The application of these psychological principles to social issues (e.g. reducing criminal behaviour, and increasing recycling) and personal growth (e.g. overcoming one’s own annoying habits)

AREAS OF LEARNING Investigation designs and methods for assessing psychological responses used to study learning

AREAS OF LEARNING Ethical issues associated with research and applications in the area of learning

LEARNING Stage 2 Psychology

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