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AP Psychology Unit 6: Learning.

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Presentation on theme: "AP Psychology Unit 6: Learning."— Presentation transcript:

1 AP Psychology Unit 6: Learning

2 Learning: Definition Relatively permanent
to rule out behavioral changes that result from fatigue or motivational changes Exception: Short-Term Memory recall ability only lasts about 30 seconds without rehearsal – learning happens, but it’s not “relatively permanent Change in behavior or behavior potential Behavioral potential is included because learning often takes place without immediately being shown in behavior. learning may create the potential for behavior change when the conditions are right – e.g. when there is an incentive Experience in environment rule out changes that result from maturation Complication: maturation usually works together with experience to change behavior. It speeds up the learning process.

3 Learning: Learning vs. Maturation
It is hard to separate experience from maturation and say something is purely learned or purely genetic. Maturation is generally seen as preparing a species to learn a skill rapidly

4 Associative Learning A simple form of learning in which we comprehend that certain events occur together We will learn about several types: Habituation Sensitization Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning Operant or Instrumental or Skinnerian Conditioning

5 Habituation and Sensitization
We sure were annoying! Habituation Decreased response to a stimulus judged to be of little or no importance We engage in this type of learning so we can tune out unimportant stimuli and focus on what matters Sensitization Increased response to a stimulus when we are anticipating an important stimulus We engage in this type of learning so we are prepared for dangerous situations Yep. Annoying.

6 Classical Conditioning
this guy’s a freak. I love me some salivating dogskis

7 Classical Conditioning: Definition and History
Learning in which a response naturally caused by one stimulus comes to be elicited by a different, formerly neutral stimulus: Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)  Unconditioned Response (UCR) Neutral Stimulus (NS) + UCS  UCR Conditioned Stimulus (CS)  Conditioned Response (CR) Ivan Pavlov Accidentally discovered classical conditioning His experiments on digestion in dogs turned into research on learning Also worked with conditioning a defensive reflex I LOVE dogski saliva!

8 Elements of Classical Conditioning
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) A stimulus that naturally and automatically causes a specific response in an organism And example of a UCS would be food Unconditioned response (UCR) The response caused by a UCS The UCR is automatic and unlearned An example of a UCR is salivation in response to food

9 Elements of Classical Conditioning
Conditioned stimulus (CS) A formerly neutral stimulus (NS) that is paired with a UCS and eventually causes the desired response all by itself An example of a CS is the bell in Pavlov’s studies Conditioned response (CR) The learned response to the CS An example is salivation in response to the bell

10 Classical Conditioning: Pavlov’s Experiment
Before Conditioning Bell (NS) No Response Food (UCS) Salivation (UCR)

11 Classical Conditioning: Pavlov’s Procedure
During Conditioning Food (UCS) Bell (NS) Salivation (UCR)

12 Classical Conditioning: Pavlov’s Procedure
After Conditioning Bell (CS) Salivation (CR)

13 Pavlov’s Dog NS- Bell (because is causes no response before training)
CS- Bell (after pairing with meat) UCS- Meat Powder (dog naturally likes) UCR- Salivate (dog salivates at meat- relex) CR- Salivate (dog salivates at bell)

14 Classical Conditioning In Humans
The “Little Albert” experiment demonstrated a classically conditioned fear of white fluffy things CS = Rat CR = Fear of Rat UCS = Loud Noise UCR = Fear of Noise NS = Rat Come hither, rattypants! Stop touching me, creepy baby…

15 Classical Conditioning in Humans: Class Demonstration
What happens? Label the UCS, UCR, NS, CS and CR in your notes based on the demo.

16 New Learning Based on Old: Higher Order Conditioning
Once a neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus, it may function as an unconditioned stimulus to elicit new learning. For instance, in Pavlov’s experiment, once the bell produced the salivation response in the dogs, it could be paired with a new neutral stimulus, such as a red light, until the dogs learned to salivate to the red light alone.

17 Classical Conditioning: Key Variables
In order for Classical Conditioning to work the following variables must exist: STRENGTH - Stimuli (UCS, NS) must be noticeable enough to provoke a response. TIMING - UCS and NS must be paired close together so that an association is made between the two. Best case: NS precedes UCS. FREQUENCY - UCS and NS must be paired together many times so that an association is made between the two and the NS can come to elicit the same response as the UCS.

18 Classical Conditioning: Predictability
Blocking – previous learning prevents conditioning to a second stimulus when the two stimuli are presented together Kamin’s Work – rats that learned to fear a tone which had been followed by a shock. When the tone was simultaneously paired with a light and followed by the shock, the rats failed to fear the light alone. Backward Conditioning – NS may come before OR after UCS, but not before AND after. Rescorla’s Work – tone could either mean be fearful or relax, depending when it occurred with shock.

19 Classical Conditioning: Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery
After a period of time passes when CS is not paired with UCS, CS returns to being an NS e.g. Baby Albert would eventually cease to be afraid of white fluffy things after they were not paired with a horrible and frightening noise (Mary Cover Jones) Spontaneous Recovery – Just because extinction occurs, does it mean that the learning is gone?No! After extinction, it is not unusual to see the recurrence of the conditioned response This proves the learning never disappeared; it was just obscured by new learning - like interference

20 Classical Conditioning: Generalization and Discrimination
DUDE! Get that white furry evil away from me! Generalization – An organism may learn to respond not only to the CS, but also to other stimuli that are similar to the CS. e.g. Baby Albert was conditioned to fear a white rat, but also feared cotton balls, rabbits, white sweaters, etc. Discrimination – Organisms can also learn to decipher between similar stimuli when only particular stimuli are paired with a UCS. Which one yields food?

21 Generalization versus Discrimination
Bitten by this Afraid of this Bitten by this Not afraid of this

22 No more livestock? Now what?
Classical Conditioning in the Real World: Taste Aversion and the Garcia Effect Dude…I’m never eating pumpkin seeds again. Some learning mechanisms are so powerful they do not require frequency of pairings. Taste Aversion – Occurs when organism becomes ill following consumption of a particular food. Organism may never be able to eat the food again. WHY? Garcia Effect – Using principles of taste aversion, John Garcia put this phenomenon to good use Sprinkled carcass of sheep with a chemical that caused illness in coyotes Coyotes did not attack the livestock following this experience No more livestock? Now what?

23 Classical Conditioning in the Real World: Preparedness and Contrapreparedness
Some conditioned responses come naturally, others do not. Preparedness Conditioned behaviors that work well with organism’s instinctive behaviors and are easy to train e.g. phobia of snakes or spiders Contrapreparedness Other conditioned behaviors go against the organism’s instinctive behaviors and are difficult or impossible to train. e.g. phobia of chairs or tables? Scary. Not Scary.

24 Classical Conditioning in the Real World: Treating Phobias
Many phobias are learned responses and can be unlearned This can be done gradually or all at once Systematic Desensitization Therapist and client generate “fear hierarchy” of situations that are increasingly threatening Client then learns relaxation techniques Client experiences “in vivo” therapy to directly experience each item on fear hierarchy to gradually unlearn his/her fear Flooding Client faces worst-case-scenario involving fear If they can survive this, they have no reason so be fearful every day

25 Operant Conditioning The Ultimate Skinner Box
Skinner “Crib” containing Skinner’s child Skinner Box

26 Operant Conditioning Learning in which an organism engages in a spontaneous behavior which is followed by a consequence - a reward or punishment Organism learns to perform behavior in order to gain a reward or avoid a punishment

27 If a behavior is reinforced, it is MORE likely to occur
Operant Conditioning If a behavior is reinforced, it is MORE likely to occur If a behavior is punished, it is LESS likely to occur Edward L. Thorndike (1913) Law of Effect The probability of a response is altered by the effect it has; responses that lead to desired effects are repeated; those that lead to undesired effects are not Thorndike’s law of effect stated that if a response in the presence of a stimulus leads to satisfying effects, the association between the stimulus and the response is strengthened. This law became the cornerstone of Skinner’s theory. Skinner’s principle of reinforcement holds that organisms tend to repeat those responses that are followed by favorable consequences, or reinforcement. Skinner defined reinforcement as when an event following a response increases an organism’s tendency to make that response. Skinner created a prototype experimental procedure, using animals and an operant chamber or “Skinner box.” This is a small enclosure in which an animal can make a specific response that is recorded, while the consequences of the response are systematically controlled. Rats, for example, press a lever. Because operant responses tend to be voluntary, they are said to be emitted rather than elicited. Reinforcement contingencies are the circumstances, or rules, that determine whether responses lead to the presentation of reinforcers. The cumulative recorder creates a graphic record of responding and reinforcement in a Skinner box as a function of time.

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29 History of Operant Conditioning
E.L. Thorndike Researched cats in a puzzle box Cats learned to escape from box to attain a reinforcement of food B.F. Skinner Created a device called a Skinner Box to train organisms using operant conditioning Also did research on superstition (pigeons) and connected it to the principles of operant conditioning

30 Elements of Operant Conditioning
Reinforcer A stimulus or event that follows a behavior and makes that behavior more likely to occur again Punisher A stimulus or event that follows a behavior and makes that behavior less likely to occur again

31 Types of Reinforcement
Positive reinforcer (+) Adds something rewarding following a behavior, making that behavior more likely to occur again Giving a dog a treat for fetching a ball is an example Negative reinforcer (-) Removes something unpleasant from the environment following a behavior, making that behavior more likely to occur again Taking an aspirin to relieve a headache is an example

32 Figure 6.18 Positive reinforcement versus negative reinforcement

33 Types of Reinforcement
Primary reinforcer Adds something intrinsically valuable to the organism Giving a dog a food for shaking hands Secondary reinforcer Adds something with assigned value to the organism Giving a person $100 for each “A” on their report card

34 Types of Punishment Negative Punishment (-) Positive Punishment (+)
Removes something desirable to decrease a behavior Taking a child’s toy away for swearing Also called omission training Positive Punishment (+) Adds something undesirable to decrease a behavior Spanking a child for swearing

35 Punishment Examples Positive Punishment Negative Punishment
If you stroke a cat's fur in a manner that the cat finds unpleasant, the cat may attempt to bite you. Therefore, the presentation of the cat's bite will act as a positive punisher and decrease the likelihood that you will stroke the cat in that same manner in the future. Negative Punishment When a child "talks back" to his/her mother, the child may lose the privilege of watching her favorite television program. Therefore, the loss of viewing privileges will act as a negative punisher and decrease the likelihood of the child talking back in the future.

36 Figure 6.20 Comparison of negative reinforcement and punishment

37 Types of Punishment Secondary Punishment Primary Punishment
Method of decreasing behavior is undesirable, but not life-threatening Taking away a prisoner’s recreational privileges for trying to escape Primary Punishment Method of decreasing behavior is directly threatening to organism’s survival Beating a prisoner for trying to escape

38 Positive Negative Reinforcement Punishment Getting Money Food Hugs
Treats Praise Changing the batteries in smoke detector to make it stop beeping Taking off uncomfortable clothing Tylenol for a headache Punishment Spanking Hitting Yelling Pinching Time-out Grounding No TV No Sex

39 Complex Behaviors and Shaping
Some behaviors are too complex to occur spontaneously For these behaviors, shaping must be used Shaping reinforces successive approximations to the desired behavior Organism eventually learns what the desired behavior is in small steps Similar to playing “hot and cold”

40 Preparedness and Contrapreparedness in Operant Conditioning
Some changes in behavior are easily trained Preparedness Conditioned behaviors that work well with organism’s instinctive behaviors and are easy to train e.g. Brelands’ “Dancing Chicken” Contrapreparedness Other conditioned behaviors go against the organism’s instinctive behaviors and are difficult or impossible to train.

41 Reinforcement vs. Punishment?
Punishment not as effective as reinforcement Does not teach proper behavior, only suppresses undesirable behavior Causes upset that can impede learning May give impression that inflicting pain is acceptable

42 Effective Punishment? Effective punishment must be SWIFT CERTAIN
Should occur as soon as possible after the behavior CERTAIN Should occur every time the behavior does SUFFICIENT Should be strong enough to be a deterrent CONSISTENT Should apply to all individuals the same way

43 Impact of Punishment When punishment is given haphazardly, learned helplessness can result. Learned Helplessness occurs when NO MATTER WHAT THE ORGANISM DOES, it cannot change the consequences of behavior. Martin Seligman’s experiment with dogs showed that dogs given a series of inescapable shocks stopped trying to escape the shocks even when given the opportunity to escape later. Another example would be finding that whether or not you study for your calculus tests, you fail, so you stop trying altogether.

44 Alternatives to Punishment
An alternative to punishment if known as AVOIDANCE TRAINING the organism is given a “warning” before punishment occurs so it may change its behavior in order to avoid an unpleasant consequence like a punishment. ex/ “Counting to three” before punishment is delivered to provoke a child to stop misbehaving.

45 Behavioral Change Using Biofeedback
Biofeedback is an operant technique that teaches people to gain voluntary control over bodily processes like heart rate and blood pressure When used to control brain activity it is called neurofeedback

46 Schedules of Reinforcement
Continuous reinforcement vs. Intermittent reinforcement? Interval schedules Reinforcement depends on the passing of time Fixed-interval schedule Reinforcement follows the first behavior after a fixed amount of time has passed An example would be receiving a paycheck every two weeks Variable-interval schedule Reinforcement follows the first behavior after a variable amount of time has passed An example would be pop quizzes

47 Schedules of Reinforcement
Ratio schedules Reinforcement depends on the number of responses made Fixed-ratio schedule Reinforcement follows a fixed number of behaviors For example, being paid on a piecework basis Variable-ratio schedule Reinforcement follows a variable number of behaviors An example would be playing slot machines Yields the most rapid response rate Subject does not know when reward is coming - works consistently Subject must WORK to get reward

48 Response Patterns to Schedules of Reinforcement
Which schedule yields the fastest response rate? What happened in our class demonstration?

49 Figure 6.17 Schedules of reinforcement and patterns of response

50 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation
Reinforcement can sometimes come from within and be intrinsically motivated e.g. Playing on a swing set is intrinsically motivated in children Reinforcements can also be extrinsically motivated, or come from an exogenous source e.g. Adults get paid for going to work – no pay, no work. What happens when we give extrinsic reinforcements for intrinsically motivated behavior? Implications?

51 Compare and Contrast: Classical and Operant Conditioning

52 Cognitive Learning

53 Cognitive Learning Sometimes learning involves more than simply reacting to stimuli – it involves THINKING! Cognitive Learning Learning that depends on mental activity that is not directly observable Involves such processes as attention, expectation, thinking, and memory While behaviorists typically focus on learning that is based on reactions, cognitive psychologists explain learning in terms of additional mental processes.

54 Generative Learning and Insight
Using what you know to figure out something you don’t E.g. realizing a new song is by a favorite group of yours Insight After thinking about a problem for a bit, you suddenly figure it out E.g. Kohler’s chimps; “Genius” Chimp

55 Latent Learning and Cognitive Maps
Edward Chance Tolman and the “Tolmaniacs” learning that takes place before the subject realizes it and is not immediately reflected in behavior Taking a test on material learned over the course of a few weeks Cognitive mapping latent learning stored as a mental image Slideshow experiment Demonstration of Latent Learning and Cognitive Mapping

56 Learning Sets and Trial and Error Learning
Learning sets/Learning to Learn refers to increasing effectiveness at problem solving through experience organisms “learn how to learn” Figuring out how to study best Trial and Error Learning Learn by your mistakes Class demonstration - “Blind Maze” - what happened?

57 Learning by Observing Why, Bandura WHYYYY? Social Learning Theory or Observational Learning Theory focuses on what we learn from observing other people Albert Bandura’s Bobo Doll experiment Children imitated adult role model - adult models behavior and child imitates Non-human animals have even been shown to learn through observation! Modeling refers to process of observing and imitating a specific behavior Prosocial and Antisocial behavior? Evil Bobo Doll

58 The Bobo Doll Experiment Albert Bandura

59 Wired for Imitation: Mirror Neurons
Mirror neurons are specialized neurons in the frontal lobe that not only fire when we are engaged in certain actions, but ALSO when we watch others perform those actions. These neurons form the basis of imitation, empathy and our social nature. Yawning, smiling, laughing, etc. Monkey study? Impact of Vicarious reinforcement and punishment? What happens to your brain When you watch Cheesy Lifetime movies

60 Learning by Observing


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