1. AP Psychology Unit 6:
Learning

2. Learning: Definition Relatively permanent
to rule out behavioral changes that result from fatigue or motivational changes
Exception: Short-Term Memory recall ability only lasts about 30 seconds without rehearsal – learning happens, but it’s not “relatively permanent
Change in behavior or behavior potential
Behavioral potential is included because learning often takes place without immediately being shown in behavior.
learning may create the potential for behavior change when the conditions are right – e.g. when there is an incentive
Experience in environment
rule out changes that result from maturation
Complication: maturation usually works together with experience to change behavior. It speeds up the learning process.

3. Learning: Learning vs. Maturation
It is hard to separate experience from maturation and say something is purely learned or purely genetic.
Maturation is generally seen as preparing a species to learn a skill rapidly

4. Associative Learning
A simple form of learning in which we comprehend that certain events occur together
We will learn about several types:
Habituation
Sensitization
Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning
Operant or Instrumental or Skinnerian Conditioning

5. Habituation and Sensitization
We sure were annoying!
Habituation
Decreased response to a stimulus judged to be of little or no importance
We engage in this type of learning so we can tune out unimportant stimuli and focus on what matters
Sensitization
Increased response to a stimulus when we are anticipating an important stimulus
We engage in this type of learning so we are prepared for dangerous situations
Yep. Annoying.

6. Classical Conditioning
this guy’s
a freak.
I love me some
salivating dogskis

7. Classical Conditioning: Definition and History
Learning in which a response naturally caused by one stimulus comes to be elicited by a different, formerly neutral stimulus:
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)  Unconditioned Response (UCR)
Neutral Stimulus (NS) + UCS  UCR
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)  Conditioned Response (CR)
Ivan Pavlov
Accidentally discovered classical conditioning
His experiments on digestion in dogs turned into research on learning
Also worked with conditioning a defensive reflex
I LOVE dogski saliva!

8. Elements of Classical Conditioning
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
A stimulus that naturally and automatically causes a specific response in an organism
And example of a UCS would be food
Unconditioned response (UCR)
The response caused by a UCS
The UCR is automatic and unlearned
An example of a UCR is salivation in response to food

9. Elements of Classical Conditioning
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
A formerly neutral stimulus (NS) that is paired with a UCS and eventually causes the desired response all by itself
An example of a CS is the bell in Pavlov’s studies
Conditioned response (CR)
The learned response to the CS
An example is salivation in response to the bell

10. Classical Conditioning: Pavlov’s Experiment
Before Conditioning
Bell (NS)
No Response
Food (UCS)
Salivation (UCR)

11. Classical Conditioning: Pavlov’s Procedure
During Conditioning
Food (UCS)
Bell (NS)
Salivation (UCR)

12. Classical Conditioning: Pavlov’s Procedure
After Conditioning
Bell (CS)
Salivation (CR)

13. Pavlov’s Dog NS- Bell (because is causes no response before training)
CS- Bell (after pairing with meat)
UCS- Meat Powder (dog naturally likes)
UCR- Salivate (dog salivates at meat- relex)
CR- Salivate (dog salivates at bell)

14. Classical Conditioning In Humans
The “Little Albert” experiment demonstrated a classically
conditioned fear of white fluffy things
CS =
Rat
CR =
Fear of Rat
UCS =
Loud Noise
UCR =
Fear of Noise
NS =
Rat
Come hither, rattypants!
Stop touching me, creepy baby…

15. Classical Conditioning in Humans: Class Demonstration
What happens? Label the UCS, UCR, NS, CS and CR in your notes based on the demo.

16. New Learning Based on Old: Higher Order Conditioning
Once a neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus, it may function as an unconditioned stimulus to elicit new learning.
For instance, in Pavlov’s experiment, once the bell produced the salivation response in the dogs, it could be paired with a new neutral stimulus, such as a red light, until the dogs learned to salivate to the red light alone.

17. Classical Conditioning: Key Variables
In order for Classical Conditioning to work the following variables must exist:
STRENGTH - Stimuli (UCS, NS) must be noticeable enough to provoke a response.
TIMING - UCS and NS must be paired close together so that an association is made between the two. Best case: NS precedes UCS.
FREQUENCY - UCS and NS must be paired together many times so that an association is made between the two and the NS can come to elicit the same response as the UCS.

18. Classical Conditioning: Predictability
Blocking – previous learning prevents conditioning to a second stimulus when the two stimuli are presented together
Kamin’s Work – rats that learned to fear a tone which had been followed by a shock. When the tone was simultaneously paired with a light and followed by the shock, the rats failed to fear the light alone.
Backward Conditioning – NS may come before OR after UCS, but not before AND after.
Rescorla’s Work – tone could either mean be fearful or relax, depending when it occurred with shock.

19. Classical Conditioning: Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery
After a period of time passes when CS is not paired with UCS, CS returns to being an NS
e.g. Baby Albert would eventually cease to be afraid of white fluffy things after they were not paired with a horrible and frightening noise (Mary Cover Jones)
Spontaneous Recovery –
Just because extinction occurs, does it mean that the learning is gone?No!
After extinction, it is not unusual to see the recurrence of the conditioned response
This proves the learning never disappeared; it was just obscured by new learning - like interference

20. Classical Conditioning: Generalization and Discrimination
DUDE! Get that white furry evil away from me!
Generalization –
An organism may learn to respond not only to the CS, but also to other stimuli that are similar to the CS.
e.g. Baby Albert was conditioned to fear a white rat, but also feared cotton balls, rabbits, white sweaters, etc.
Discrimination –
Organisms can also learn to decipher between similar stimuli when only particular stimuli are paired with a UCS.
Which one yields food?

21. Generalization versus Discrimination
Bitten by this Afraid of this
Bitten by this Not afraid of this

22. No more livestock? Now what?
Classical Conditioning in the Real World: Taste Aversion and the Garcia Effect
Dude…I’m never eating pumpkin seeds again.
Some learning mechanisms are so powerful they do not require frequency of pairings.
Taste Aversion –
Occurs when organism becomes ill following consumption of a particular food.
Organism may never be able to eat the food again.
WHY?
Garcia Effect –
Using principles of taste aversion, John Garcia put this phenomenon to good use
Sprinkled carcass of sheep with a chemical that caused illness in coyotes
Coyotes did not attack the livestock following this experience
No more livestock? Now what?

23. Classical Conditioning in the Real World: Preparedness and Contrapreparedness
Some conditioned responses come naturally, others do not.
Preparedness
Conditioned behaviors that work well with organism’s instinctive behaviors and are easy to train
e.g. phobia of snakes or spiders
Contrapreparedness
Other conditioned behaviors go against the organism’s instinctive behaviors and are difficult or impossible to train.
e.g. phobia of chairs or tables?
Scary.
Not Scary.

24. Classical Conditioning in the Real World: Treating Phobias
Many phobias are learned responses and can be unlearned
This can be done gradually or all at once
Systematic Desensitization
Therapist and client generate “fear hierarchy” of situations that are increasingly threatening
Client then learns relaxation techniques
Client experiences “in vivo” therapy to directly experience each item on fear hierarchy to gradually unlearn his/her fear
Flooding
Client faces worst-case-scenario involving fear
If they can survive this, they have no reason so be fearful every day

25. Operant Conditioning The Ultimate Skinner Box
Skinner “Crib” containing Skinner’s child
Skinner Box

26. Operant Conditioning
Learning in which an organism engages in a spontaneous behavior which is followed by a consequence - a reward or punishment
Organism learns to perform behavior in order to gain a reward or avoid a punishment

27. If a behavior is reinforced, it is MORE likely to occur
Operant Conditioning
If a behavior is reinforced, it is MORE likely to occur
If a behavior is punished, it is LESS likely to occur
Edward L. Thorndike (1913)
Law of Effect
The probability of a response is altered by the effect it has; responses that lead to desired effects are repeated; those that lead to undesired effects are not
Thorndike’s law of effect stated that if a response in the presence of a stimulus leads to satisfying effects, the association between the stimulus and the response is strengthened.
This law became the cornerstone of Skinner’s theory.
Skinner’s principle of reinforcement holds that organisms tend to repeat those responses that are followed by favorable consequences, or reinforcement.
Skinner defined reinforcement as when an event following a response increases an organism’s tendency to make that response.
Skinner created a prototype experimental procedure, using animals and an operant chamber or “Skinner box.” This is a small enclosure in which an animal can make a specific response that is recorded, while the consequences of the response are systematically controlled. Rats, for example, press a lever.
Because operant responses tend to be voluntary, they are said to be emitted rather than elicited.
Reinforcement contingencies are the circumstances, or rules, that determine whether responses lead to the presentation of reinforcers.
The cumulative recorder creates a graphic record of responding and reinforcement in a Skinner box as a function of time.

29. History of Operant Conditioning
E.L. Thorndike
Researched cats in a puzzle box
Cats learned to escape from box to attain a reinforcement of food
B.F. Skinner
Created a device called a Skinner Box to train organisms using operant conditioning
Also did research on superstition (pigeons) and connected it to the principles of operant conditioning

30. Elements of Operant Conditioning
Reinforcer
A stimulus or event that follows a behavior and makes that behavior more likely to occur again
Punisher
A stimulus or event that follows a behavior and makes that behavior less likely to occur again

31. Types of Reinforcement
Positive reinforcer (+)
Adds something rewarding following a behavior, making that behavior more likely to occur again
Giving a dog a treat for fetching a ball is an example
Negative reinforcer (-)
Removes something unpleasant from the environment following a behavior, making that behavior more likely to occur again
Taking an aspirin to relieve a headache is an example

32. Figure 6.18 Positive reinforcement versus negative reinforcement

33. Types of Reinforcement
Primary reinforcer
Adds something intrinsically valuable to the organism
Giving a dog a food for shaking hands
Secondary reinforcer
Adds something with assigned value to the organism
Giving a person $100 for each “A” on their report card

34. Types of Punishment Negative Punishment (-) Positive Punishment (+)
Removes something desirable to decrease a behavior
Taking a child’s toy away for swearing
Also called omission training
Positive Punishment (+)
Adds something undesirable to decrease a behavior
Spanking a child for swearing

35. Punishment Examples Positive Punishment Negative Punishment
If you stroke a cat's fur in a manner that the cat finds unpleasant, the cat may attempt to bite you. Therefore, the presentation of the cat's bite will act as a positive punisher and decrease the likelihood that you will stroke the cat in that same manner in the future.
Negative Punishment
When a child "talks back" to his/her mother, the child may lose the privilege of watching her favorite television program. Therefore, the loss of viewing privileges will act as a negative punisher and decrease the likelihood of the child talking back in the future.

36. Figure 6.20 Comparison of negative reinforcement and punishment

37. Types of Punishment Secondary Punishment Primary Punishment
Method of decreasing behavior is undesirable, but not life-threatening
Taking away a prisoner’s recreational privileges for trying to escape
Primary Punishment
Method of decreasing behavior is directly threatening to organism’s survival
Beating a prisoner for trying to escape

38. Positive Negative Reinforcement Punishment Getting Money Food Hugs
Treats
Praise
Changing the batteries in smoke detector to make it stop beeping
Taking off uncomfortable clothing
Tylenol for a headache
Punishment
Spanking
Hitting
Yelling
Pinching
Time-out
Grounding
No TV
No Sex

39. Complex Behaviors and Shaping
Some behaviors are too complex to occur spontaneously
For these behaviors, shaping must be used
Shaping reinforces successive approximations to the desired behavior
Organism eventually learns what the desired behavior is in small steps
Similar to playing “hot and cold”

40. Preparedness and Contrapreparedness in Operant Conditioning
Some changes in behavior are easily trained
Preparedness
Conditioned behaviors that work well with organism’s instinctive behaviors and are easy to train
e.g. Brelands’ “Dancing Chicken”
Contrapreparedness
Other conditioned behaviors go against the organism’s instinctive behaviors and are difficult or impossible to train.

41. Reinforcement vs. Punishment?
Punishment not as effective as reinforcement
Does not teach proper behavior, only suppresses undesirable behavior
Causes upset that can impede learning
May give impression that inflicting pain is acceptable

42. Effective Punishment? Effective punishment must be SWIFT CERTAIN
Should occur as soon as possible after the behavior
CERTAIN
Should occur every time the behavior does
SUFFICIENT
Should be strong enough to be a deterrent
CONSISTENT
Should apply to all individuals the same way

43. Impact of Punishment
When punishment is given haphazardly, learned helplessness can result.
Learned Helplessness occurs when NO MATTER WHAT THE ORGANISM DOES, it cannot change the consequences of behavior.
Martin Seligman’s experiment with dogs showed that dogs given a series of inescapable shocks stopped trying to escape the shocks even when given the opportunity to escape later.
Another example would be finding that whether or not you study for your calculus tests, you fail, so you stop trying altogether.

44. Alternatives to Punishment
An alternative to punishment if known as AVOIDANCE TRAINING
the organism is given a “warning” before punishment occurs so it may change its behavior in order to avoid an unpleasant consequence like a punishment.
ex/ “Counting to three” before punishment is delivered to provoke a child to stop misbehaving.

45. Behavioral Change Using Biofeedback
Biofeedback is an operant technique that teaches people to gain voluntary control over bodily processes like heart rate and blood pressure
When used to control brain activity it is called neurofeedback

46. Schedules of Reinforcement
Continuous reinforcement vs. Intermittent reinforcement?
Interval schedules
Reinforcement depends on the passing of time
Fixed-interval schedule
Reinforcement follows the first behavior after a fixed amount of time has passed
An example would be receiving a paycheck every two weeks
Variable-interval schedule
Reinforcement follows the first behavior after a variable amount of time has passed
An example would be pop quizzes

47. Schedules of Reinforcement
Ratio schedules
Reinforcement depends on the number of responses made
Fixed-ratio schedule
Reinforcement follows a fixed number of behaviors
For example, being paid on a piecework basis
Variable-ratio schedule
Reinforcement follows a variable number of behaviors
An example would be playing slot machines
Yields the most rapid response rate
Subject does not know when reward is coming - works consistently
Subject must WORK to get reward

48. Response Patterns to Schedules of Reinforcement
Which schedule yields the fastest response rate?
What happened in our class demonstration?

49. Figure 6.17 Schedules of reinforcement and patterns of response

50. Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation
Reinforcement can sometimes come from within and be intrinsically motivated
e.g. Playing on a swing set is intrinsically motivated in children
Reinforcements can also be extrinsically motivated, or come from an exogenous source
e.g. Adults get paid for going to work – no pay, no work.
What happens when we give extrinsic reinforcements for intrinsically motivated behavior?
Implications?

51. Compare and Contrast: Classical and Operant Conditioning

52. Cognitive Learning

53. Cognitive Learning
Sometimes learning involves more than simply reacting to stimuli – it involves THINKING!
Cognitive Learning
Learning that depends on mental activity that is not directly observable
Involves such processes as attention, expectation, thinking, and memory
While behaviorists typically focus on learning that is based on reactions, cognitive psychologists explain learning in terms of additional mental processes.

54. Generative Learning and Insight
Using what you know to figure out something you don’t
E.g. realizing a new song is by a favorite group of yours
Insight
After thinking about a problem for a bit, you suddenly figure it out
E.g. Kohler’s chimps; “Genius” Chimp

55. Latent Learning and Cognitive Maps
Edward Chance Tolman and the “Tolmaniacs”
learning that takes place before the subject realizes it and is not immediately reflected in behavior
Taking a test on material learned over the course of a few weeks
Cognitive mapping
latent learning stored as a mental image
Slideshow experiment
Demonstration of Latent Learning and Cognitive Mapping

56. Learning Sets and Trial and Error Learning
Learning sets/Learning to Learn
refers to increasing effectiveness at problem solving through experience
organisms “learn how to learn”
Figuring out how to study best
Trial and Error Learning
Learn by your mistakes
Class demonstration - “Blind Maze” - what happened?

57. Learning by Observing
Why,
Bandura
WHYYYY?
Social Learning Theory or Observational Learning Theory focuses on what we learn from observing other people
Albert Bandura’s Bobo Doll experiment
Children imitated adult role model - adult models behavior and child imitates
Non-human animals have even been shown to learn through observation!
Modeling refers to process of observing and imitating a specific behavior
Prosocial and Antisocial behavior?
Evil Bobo Doll

58. The Bobo Doll Experiment Albert Bandura

59. Wired for Imitation: Mirror Neurons
Mirror neurons are specialized neurons in the frontal lobe that not only fire when we are engaged in certain actions, but ALSO when we watch others perform those actions.
These neurons form the basis of imitation, empathy and our social nature.
Yawning, smiling, laughing, etc.
Monkey study?
Impact of Vicarious reinforcement and punishment?
What happens
to your brain
When you watch
Cheesy Lifetime
movies

60. Learning by Observing