1. Chapter 6
Learning – 8th edition

2. Learning Learning Ivan Pavlov – Classical conditioning Terminology
Operant/Instrumental conditioning
Observational learning
Ivan Pavlov – Classical conditioning
Terminology
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
Unconditioned Response (UCR)
Conditioned Response (CR)
Learning is the relative change in current or potential behavior as the result of experience. This might result in a change to the nervous system.
Three types of learning will be covered: classical conditioning, operant/instrumental conditioning, and observational learning.
Classical conditioning explains how a neutral stimulus can acquire the capacity to elicit (or draw forth) a response originally elicited by another stimulus.
Ivan Pavlov, a prominent Russian physiologist in the early 1900’s, who did Nobel prize winning research on digestion, discovered (partly by accident) that dogs will salivate in response to the sound of a tone. In doing so, he discovered classical, sometimes called Pavlovian, conditioning.
In classical conditioning, the UCS is a stimulus that elicits an unconditioned response without previous conditioning…Pavlov’s meat powder.
The UCR is an unlearned reaction to a UCS that occurs without previous conditioning…salivating.
The CS is a previously neutral stimulus that has acquired the capacity to elicit a conditioned response...the sound of a tone.
The CR is a learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus…salivating to the tone.

3. Demonstration of Pavlov’s Dog

6. Classical Conditioning: More Terminology
Trial = pairing of UCS and CS
Acquisition = initial stage in learning
Stimulus contiguity = occurring together in time and space
3 types of Classical Conditioning
Simultaneous conditioning: CS and UCS begin and end together
Short-delayed conditioning: CS begins just before the UCS, end together
Trace conditioning: CS begins and ends before UCS is presented
Classical Conditioning in Everyday Life
Conditioned fears
Other conditioned emotional responses
Conditioning and physiological responses
Conditioning and drug effects – F 6.6
In classical conditioning research, a trial is a pairing of the UCS and the CS. (How many times have the tone and the meat powder been paired?) Some behaviors are learned after only one trial or pairing, while others take many trials.
Acquisition refers to the initial stage of learning a response…acquiring the response.
Conditioning has been shown to depend on stimulus contiguity; that is, the occurring of stimuli together in time and space.
So when do you sound the tone in a classical conditioning task? What works best? Of the three types of conditioning (simultaneous, short-delayed, and trace), short-delayed conditioning appears to most promote acquisition of a classically conditioned response…ideally the delay should be very brief, about ½ a second.

7. Processes in Classical Conditioning
Extinction
Spontaneous Recovery
Stimulus Generalization
Discrimination
Higher-order conditioning
Applications of classical conditioning – Pavlov and persuasion – the use of images and products in advertisement
Extinction occurs when the CS and UCS are no longer paired and the response to the CS is weakened. We know that the response is still there, just not active, because of spontaneous recovery – when an extinguished response reappears after a period of non-pairing.
Generalization occurs when conditioning generalizes to additional stimuli that are similar to the CS; for example, Watson and Rayner’s study with Little Albert, who was conditioned to fear a white rat but later came to be afraid of many white, furry objects.
Discrimination is the opposite of generalization; that is, the response is to a specific stimulus… similar stimuli don’t work.
Higher order conditioning occurs when a CS functions as if it were a UCS to establish new conditioning…condition to respond to a tone with saliva, pair the tone with a light.
Applications: Pavlov and persuasion – the use of images and products in advertisements

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11. Operant Conditioning or Instrumental Learning
Edward L. Thorndike (1913) – the law of effect – puzzle box and learning curve – F 6.11
B.F. Skinner (1953) – principle of reinforcement
Operant chamber – “Skinner Box” – F 6.13a
Emission of response
Reinforcement contingencies – antecedents, behaviors, and consequences (ABC)
Cumulative recorder – F 6.13b
Thorndike’s law of effect stated that if a response in the presence of a stimulus leads to satisfying effects, the association between the stimulus and the response is strengthened.
This law became the cornerstone of Skinner’s theory.
Skinner’s principle of reinforcement holds that organisms tend to repeat those responses that are followed by favorable consequences, or reinforcement.
Skinner defined reinforcement as when an event following a response increases an organism’s tendency to make that response.
Skinner created a prototype experimental procedure, using animals and an operant chamber or “Skinner box.” This is a small enclosure in which an animal can make a specific response that is recorded, while the consequences of the response are systematically controlled. Rats, for example, press a lever.
Because operant responses tend to be voluntary, they are said to be emitted rather than elicited.
Reinforcement contingencies are the circumstances, or rules, that determine whether responses lead to the presentation of reinforcers.
The cumulative recorder creates a graphic record of responding and reinforcement in a Skinner box as a function of time.

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13. Figure 6.13 Skinner box and cumulative recorder

14. Basic Processes in Operant Conditioning
Acquisition
Shaping – p. 245 – animal examples
Extinction
Stimulus Control
Generalization
Discrimination
Remote controlled rat – F 6.15
As in classical conditioning, acquisition refers to the initial stage of learning.
Learning operant responses usually occurs through a gradual process called shaping, which consists of the reinforcement of closer and closer approximations of a desired response…key in pet tricks.
Extinction in operant conditioning refers to the gradual weakening and disappearance of a response tendency, because the response is no longer followed by a reinforcer…stop giving food when the rat presses the lever…results in a brief surge of responding followed by a gradual decline until it approaches zero.
Stimuli that precede a response can exert considerable influence over operant behavior, basically becoming “signals” that a reinforcer is coming (see Figure 6.17 re: roborats demonstrating stimulus control). Discriminative stimuli are cues that influence operant behavior by indicating the probable consequences of a response (ex. slow down when the highway is wet, ask Mom when she’s in a good mood, etc.).
Discrimination occurs when an organism responds to one stimulus, but not another one similar to it, while generalization occurs when a new stimulus is responded to as if it were the original. (ex. cat runs to the sound of a can-opener which signals food, but not to the sound of the mixer…discrimination…get a new blender, cat runs to it...generalization).

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16. Table 6.1 Comparison of Basic Processes in Classical and Operant Conditioning

17. Reinforcement: Consequences that Strengthen Responses
Delayed Reinforcement
Longer delay, slower conditioning
Primary Reinforcers
Satisfy biological needs
Secondary Reinforcers
Conditioned reinforcement
Skinner said that reinforcement occurs whenever an outcome strengthens a response…this definition avoids the use of “experience of pleasure,” which is an unobservable feeling.
In operant conditioning, immediate reinforcement produces the fastest conditioning.
Operant theorists distinguish between primary reinforcers, which are events that are inherently reinforcing because they satisfy biological needs, and secondary reinforcers, which are events that acquire reinforcing qualities by being associated with primary reinforcers.
Primary reinforcers in humans include food, water, warmth, sex, and maybe affection expressed through hugging and close bodily contact.
Secondary reinforcers in humans include things like money, good grades, attention, flattery, praise, and applause.

18. Schedules of Reinforcement
Continuous reinforcement
Intermittent (partial) reinforcement
Ratio schedules
Fixed
Variable
Interval schedules
Schedules of reinforcement and everyday life – F 6.16
A schedule of reinforcement determines which occurrences of a specific response result in the presentation of a reinforcer.
Continuous reinforcement occurs when every instance of a designated response is reinforced (faster acquisition, faster extinction).
Intermittent reinforcement occurs when a designated response is reinforced only some of the time (greater resistance to extinction).
Ratio schedules require the organism to make the designated response a certain number of times to gain each reinforcer. A fixed-ratio schedule entails giving a reinforcer after a fixed number of non-reinforced responses. A variable ratio schedule entails giving a reinforcer after a variable number of non-reinforced responses.
Interval schedules require a time period to pass between the presentation of reinforcers. A fixed-interval schedule entails reinforcing the first response that occurs after a fixed time interval has elapsed. A variable-interval schedule entails giving the reinforcer for the first response after a variable time interval has elapsed.
More than 50 years of research on these schedules has yielded an enormous amount of information about how organisms respond to different schedules.
Figure 6.19, presented on the next slide, depicts some of what has been discovered.

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20. Consequences: Reinforcement and Punishment
Increasing a response:
Positive reinforcement = response followed by rewarding stimulus
Negative reinforcement = response followed by removal of an aversive stimulus
Escape learning
Avoidance learning
Decreasing a response:
Punishment
Problems with punishment – third variable problem and correlation between punishment and aggression – F 6.21
Responses can be strengthened either by presenting positive reinforcers or by removing negative reinforcers.
Negative reinforcement regulates escape and avoidance learning. In escape learning, an organism learns to perform a behavior that decreases or ends aversive stimulation (turning on the air conditioner). In avoidance learning, an organism learns to prevent or avoid some aversive stimulation (turn on the a/c before it gets too hot).
Punishment occurs when an event following a response weakens the tendency to make that response. Punishment is much more than disciplinary procedures…wear a new outfit and friends laugh…punishing. Punishment may involve presentation of an aversive stimulus (spanking) or removal of a rewarding stimulus (taking away TV).
Some of the problems associated with punishment are that it can trigger strong emotional responses (anxiety, anger, resentment, hostility); physical punishment can lead to an increase in aggressive behavior.

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24. Changes in Our Understanding of Conditioning
Biological Constraints on Conditioning
Breland and Breland (1961) – misbehavior of organisms
Instinctive Drift
Conditioned Taste Aversion – Garcia & Koelling (1966) – Figure 6.22
Preparedness and Phobias
Cognitive Influences on Conditioning
Signal relations
Response-outcome relations
Latent learning – F 6.23
Evolutionary Perspectives on learning
New research has greatly changed the way we think about conditioning, with both biological and cognitive influences having been discovered.
Instinctive drift occurs when an animal’s innate response tendencies interfere with conditioning (the raccoon who would rather rub the coins together than obtain the reinforcer).
Conditioned taste aversions can be readily acquired, after only one trial and when the stimuli are not contiguous (i.e. becoming ill occurs hours after eating a food), suggesting that there is a biological mechanism at work.
Martin Seligman has outlined the fact that some phobias are more easily conditioned than others, suggesting the concept of preparedness…that we are biologically prepared to learn to fear objects or events that have inherent danger.
Signal relations theory (Rescorla) illustrates that the predictive value of a CS is an influential factor governing classical conditioning.
Response-outcome relations - when a response is followed by a desired outcome, it is more easily strengthened if it seems that it caused the outcome (predicts)…you study for an exam and listen to Smash Mouth…you make an A. What is strengthened, studying or listening to Smash Mouth?
Signal relations and response-outcome research suggest that cognitive processes play a larger role in conditioning than once believed.
The evolutionary perspective on learning assumes that an organism’s biological heritage places certain constraints on the learning process (which some theorists see as merely specialized mechanisms designed to solve particular types of adaptive problems for particular species).

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26. Observational Learning: Basic Processes
Albert Bandura (1977, 1986)
Observational learning – F 6.24
Vicarious conditioning
Bandura, Ross, & Ross (1963) – featured study p. 261 – 262 – Figure 6.25
4 key processes
attention
retention
reproduction
motivation
acquisition vs. performance
Albert Bandura outlined the theory of observational learning. In observational learning, vicarious conditioning occurs by an organism watching another organism (a model) be conditioned. Observational learning can occur for both classical and operant conditioning.
In order for observational learning to take place, 4 key processes are at work. First the organism must pay attention to the model, retain the information observed, and be able to reproduce the behavior. Finally, an observed response is unlikely to be reproduced unless the organism is motivated to do so, i.e., they believe there will be a pay off.
Bandura distinguishes between acquisition (having the response in your repertoire) and performance (actually engaging in the behavior). Bandura asserts that reinforcement usually influences already acquired responses, more than the acquisition of new responses.

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28. Bandura, Ross, & Ross (1963) featured study - p. 245 – 246 – Figure 6
The Bobo doll from Albert Bandura’s legendary series of studies on observational learning of aggression can be seen here. The photo on the left shows a filmed depiction of an adult role model exhibiting aggressive behavior toward the Bobo doll. The photo on the right shows how one of the young subjects in the study imitated this aggressive behavior later by attacking the Bobo doll with a hammer.
p. 245

29. Observational Learning and the Media Violence Controversy
Studies demonstrate that exposure to TV and movie violence increases the likelihood of physical aggression, verbal aggression, aggressive thoughts, and aggressive emotions
The association between media violence and aggression is nearly as great as the correlation between smoking and cancer – F 6.26 – third variable problem

30. Figure Comparison of the relationship between media violence and aggression to other correlations.

31. Modify your own behavior?
Figures 6.28 and 6.29