1. Chapter 8 motivation and emotion
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3. Abraham Maslow:

4. Needs:
1. Biological and Physiological needs - air, food, drink, shelter, warmth, sex, sleep.
2. Safety needs - protection from elements, security, order, law, stability, freedom from fear.
3. Love and belongingness needs - friendship, intimacy, trust and acceptance, receiving and giving affection and love. Affiliating, being part of a group (family, friends, work).
4. Esteem needs - achievement, mastery, independence, status, dominance, prestige, self-respect, respect from others.
5. Self-Actualization needs - realizing personal potential, self- fulfillment, seeking personal growth and peak experiences.

5. Abraham Maslow:
Maslow wanted to understand what motivates people. He believed that people possess a set of motivation systems unrelated to rewards or desires.
Maslow (1943) stated that people are motivated to achieve certain needs, and that some needs take precedence over others. Our most basic need is for physical survival, and this will be the first thing that motivates our behavior. Once that level is fulfilled the next level up is what motivates us, and so on.

6. Abraham Maslow:
Every person is capable and has the desire to move up the hierarchy toward a level of self-actualization. Unfortunately, progress is often disrupted by failure to meet lower level needs. Life experiences, including divorce and loss of job may cause an individual to fluctuate between levels of the hierarchy. Therefore, not everyone will move through the hierarchy in a uni- directional manner but may move back and forth between the different types of needs.
Maslow noted only one in a hundred people become fully self-actualized because our society rewards motivation primarily based on esteem, love and other social needs.

8. Henry Murray
American psychologist who developed a theory of personality that was organized in terms of motives, and needs.
Murray described a need as a potentiality or readiness to respond in a certain way under certain given circumstances.
While some needs are temporary and changing, other needs are more deeply seated in our nature. According to Murray, these needs function mostly on unconscious level but play a major role in our personality.

9. Murray's Types of Needs:
Ambition Needs:
The ambition needs are related to the need for achievement and recognition. The need for achievement is often expressed by succeeding, achieving goals and overcoming obstacles.
Materialistic Needs:
The materialistic needs center on acquisition, construction, order and retention. These needs often involve obtaining items, such as buying material objects that we desire.
Power Needs:
The power needs tend to center on our own independence as well as our need to control others. Murray believed that autonomy was a powerful need involving the desire for independence and resistance.

10. Murray's Types of Needs:
Affection Needs
The affection needs are centered on our desire to love and be loved. We have a need for affiliation and seek out the company of other people.
Information Needs
The information needs center around both gaining knowledge and sharing it with others.

11. William james & Carl Lange James-Lange theory:

12. William james & Carl Lange James-Lange theory:
The James-Lange theory of emotion states that emotion is equivalent to the range of physiological arousal caused by external events. The two scientists suggested that for someone to feel emotion, he/she must first experience bodily responses such as increased respiration, increased heart rate, or sweaty hands. Once this physiological response is recognized, then the person can say that he/she feels the emotion.
People experience situations and events that result in physiological reactions such as muscular tension, heart rate increase, perspiration, dryness of the mouth, and many others, which are created by the autonomic nervous system. The James Lange theory of emotion suggests that emotions are a result of these physiological responses, and not their cause.

13. William james & Carl Lange James-Lange theory:
When stimuli that can induce emotions are received and comprehended by the cortex of the brain, the visceral organs and the skeletal muscles are triggered by the autonomic nervous system and somatic nervous system, respectively. The autonomic and somatic systems will then stimulate the brain, which will be interpreted as an experience of emotion.

14. Walter cannon & Philip Bard:
In the early 1900’s, Walter Bradford Cannon (1871 – 1945), a physiologist at Harvard University, was one of the scientists who proposed a number of criticisms against James-Lange Theory of Emotion, the dominant theory of emotions at that time. He emphasized the role of the brain in producing physiological responses and feelings through his experiments, which then gave substantial support to his own theory of emotion.
In his experiments, Cannon discovered that it was still possible to experience emotion even if the brain was excised from the signals of bodily responses. He added that it was not reliable to depend on bodily responses to know the type of emotion a person experiences as different emotions may be formed by the same bodily responses.

15. Walter cannon & Philip Bard:
For instance, a person with a racing heart could either mean that the person is angry or excited. Cannon’s doctoral student, Philip Bard (1898 – 1977) agreed with this idea and continued developing, together with Cannon, their theory called Cannon-Bard Theory.
Cannon-Bard Theory declares that the experience of emotion does not merely rely on bodily inputs and how the body responds to stimuli. Both of these occur at the same time autonomously. People recognize the emotions and simultaneously undergo physiological responses such as perspiring, trembling and tensing of muscles.

16. Stanley schachter & jerome singer:
According to the Schacter–Singer theory, emotion results from the interaction between two factors: physiological arousal and cognition. More specifically, this theory claims that physiological arousal is cognitively interpreted within the context of each situation, which ultimately produces the emotional experience. These cognitive interpretations—how a person labels and understands what they are experiencing—are formed based on the person's past experiences.
For example, if you were to see a venomous snake in your backyard, the Schachter–Singer theory argues that the snake would elicit sympathetic nervous system activation (physiological arousal) that would be cognitively labeled as fear (cognition) based on the context. What you would actually experience, then, would be the feeling of fear.

17. You will need to write down the next theory… sorry

18. Lazarus theory:
A theory of emotion in which a stimulus must be interpreted (appraised) by a person in order to result in a physical response and an emotional reaction.

19. Lazarus and the cognitive-mediational theory:
In Lazarus’s cognitive mediational theory of emotion, a stimulus causes an immediate appraisal for example the dog is snarling and not behind a fence, so this is dangerous.
The cognitive appraisal results in an emotional response which is then followed by the appropriate bodily response (in our example that response may be to run away.)

20. Lazarus and the cognitive-mediational theory:

23. Understanding motivation
Motivation = is the process by which activities are started, directed and continued so that physical or psychological needs or wants are met. Motivation is what “moves” people to do things they do.
There are different types of motivation. Sometimes people are driven to do something because of an external reward of some sort (or the avoidance of an unpleasant consequence), as when someone goes to work at a job to make money and avoid losing possessions such as a house or a car.

24. Understanding motivation
Extrinsic motivation = a person preforms an action because it leads to an outcome that is separate from the person.
Example = giving a child money for every A on a report card, offering a bonus to an employee for increased performance, or tipping a server for good service.
The child, employee, and server are motivated to work for the external or extrinsic rewards.

25. Understanding motivation
Intrinsic motivation = is the type of motivation in which a person preforms an action because the act itself is rewarding or satisfying in some internal manner.
someone who writes music for his own listening pleasure is relying on intrinsic motivation. A person who writes music to sell for profit is using extrinsic motivation.

26. Instinct Approaches:
One of the earliest approaches to motivation focused on the biologically determined and innate patters of behavior that exist in both people and animals called instincts. Just as animals are governed by their territory, early researchers proposed that human beings may also be governed by similar instincts.
Instinct approach = says that in humans instinct to reproduce is responsible for sexual behavior, and the instinct for territorial protection may be related to aggressive behavior.
Freud’s psychoanalytic theory still includes the concept of instincts that reside in the ID (part of the personality containing all the basic human needs and drives.)

27. Drive – Reduction Approaches:
Needs = a need is a requirement of some material (food, water) that is essential for survival of the organism.
When and organism has a need it leads to a psychological tension as well as a physical arousal that motivates the organism to act in order to fulfill the need and reduce the tension.
This tension is called a drive = a psychological tension and physical arousal arising when there is a need that motivates that organism to satisfy the need and reduce tension and arousal.

28. Drive – Reduction Approaches:
Drive – reduction theory = proposes just this connection between internal physiological states and outward behavior. In this theory, there are two kinds of drives. Primary drives = are those involved in survival.
Whereas acquired (secondary) drives = are those that are learned through experience or conditioning, such as the need for money or social approval
This theory also includes the concept of homeostasis = or the tendency of the body to maintain a steady state. You might think of homeostasis as the body’s version of a thermostat.

29. Drive – Reduction Approaches:
When there is a primary drive need, the body is in a state of imbalance.
This stimulates behavior that brings the body back into balance, or homeostasis.
Ex: if Jarrod's body needs food, he feels hungry and that state of tension / arousal associated with that need.
He will then seek to restore his homeostasis by eating something, which is the behavior stimulated to reduce the hunger drive.

30. Arousal approaches:
Another explanation for human motivation involves the recognition of another type of need, the need for stimulation.
A stimulus motive = is one that appears to be innate and causes an increase in stimulation. Ex: would be curiosity, playing and exploring new areas.
In arousal theory = people are said to have an optimal (best or ideal) level of tension.
Task performances, for example, may suffer if the level of arousal is too high (such as severe test anxiety) or even if the level of arousal is too low (such as boredom).
For many kinds of tasks, a moderate level of arousal seems to be best. This relationship between task performance and arousal is called the Yerkes-Dodson law.

31. Yerkes-Dodson law:
Yerkes-Dodson law = law stating performance is related to arousal moderate levels of arousal lead to better performance than do levels of arousal that are too low or too high. This effect varies with the difficulty of the task: Easy tasks require a high – moderate level whereas more difficult tasks require a low-moderate level.
Maintaining an optimal level of arousal, than, may involve reducing tension or creating it. For example, husbands or wives who are under aroused may pick a fight with their spouse. Students who experience test anxiety (a high level of arousal) may seek out ways to reduce that anxiety in order to improve test performance. Students who are not anxious at all may not be motivated to study well, lowering their test performance. Many arousal theorist believe the optimal level of arousal for most people under normal circumstances is somewhere in the middle neither too high nor too low.

32. Sensation seeker:
Even though the average person might require a moderate level of arousal to feel content, there are some people who need less arousal and some who need more. The person who needs more arousal is called a sensation seeker.
Sensation seekers = seem to need more complex and varied sensory experiences than do other people. The need does not always have to involved danger. For example students who travel to other countries to study tend to score higher on scales of sensation seeking than do students who stay at home.

33. Incentive approaches:
Incentives = are things that attract or lure people into action. In fact the dictionary lists incentives as meaning the same thing as motive. For example a piece of pie is not really needing after a big Christmas dinner but the promise of wonder flavor, is incentive enough to lure a person to eat it.
Incentive approaches = behavior is explained in terms of the external stimulus and its rewarding properties. These rewarding properties exist independently of any need or level of arousal and can cause people to act only upon the incentive. Thus incentive theory is actually based, at least in part, on the principles of learning.

34. Incentive approaches Edward tolman:

35. Incentive approaches:
One of the earliest incentive approaches clearly demonstrates the relationship to learning, particularly the early cognitive learning theories found in the work of Edward Tolman (1932).
Expectancy-value theories = are a class of incentive theories based on the work of Tolman (and his maze running mice) and other people.
In general, these theories assume that the actions of humans cannot be predicted or fully understood without understanding the beliefs, values, and the importance that people attach to those beliefs and values at any given moment in time.

36. Incentive approaches:
Tolman’s work with animals (the latent learning studies of rats and mice) demonstrated that organisms are capable of remembering what had happened in the past, anticipating the future events, and adjusting their own actions according to those cognitive expectancies (a set of beliefs about what will happen in the future based on past experiences).

37. Incentive approaches:
By itself, the incentive approach does not explain the motivation behind all behavior. Many theorists today see motivation as a result of both the “push” of internal needs or drives and the “pull” of a rewarding external stimulus.
For example, sometimes a person may actually be hungry (the push) but choose to satisfy the drive by selecting a candy bar instead of a rice cake. The candy bar has more appeal to most people and it, therefore, has more “pull” than a rice cake.

38. Incentive approaches:

39. Self – Determination Theory:
Another theory of motivation that is similar to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is the self determination theory of Ryan Deci.
In this theory, there are three inborn and universal needs that help people gain a complete sense of self and whole healthy relationships with other. The three needs are autonomy = or the need to be in control of one’s own behavior and goals, competence = or the need to be able to master the challenging tasks of one’s life, and relatedness = or the need to feel a sense of belonging, intimacy, and security in relationships with others.

40. Self – Determination Theory:
Ryan Deci believes that satisfying these needs can best be accomplished if the person has a supportive environment in which to develop goals and relationships with others. Such satisfaction will not only foster healthy psychological growth but also increase the individual’s intrinsic motivation (actions are preformed because the act is internally rewarding or satisfying).
Evidence suggests that intrinsic motivation is increased or enhanced when a person not only feels competency (through experiencing positive feedback from others and succeeding at what a perceived to be challenging task) but also a sense of autonomy or the knowledge that his or her actions are self- determined rather than controlled by others.

41. Why people eat!

42. Why people eat!
Satisfying hunger is one of Maslow’s most basic needs. The eating habits of people today have been a major concern and have also been the topic of many shows, movies, and articles.
There are countless pills, supplements, and treatments to help people eat less and others to help people eat more. Eating is not only a basic survival behavior that reduces a primary drive it is also a form of entertainment for many, and the attractive presentations and social environment of many eating experiences are a powerful incentive.

44. Physiological Components of Hunger:
Weight Set Point and Basal Metabolic Rate:
The hypothalamus affects the particular level of weight that the body tries to maintain, called the weight set point. Injury to the hypothalamus does raise or lower the weight set point rather dramatically, causing either drastic weight loss or weight gain.
The rate at which the body burns energy when a person is resting is called basal metabolic rate (BMR) and is directly tied to the set point. If a person’s BMR decreases (as it does in adulthood and with decreased activity levels), that person’s weight set point increased if the same number of calories is consumed.

45. Physiological Components of Hunger:
Adolescents typically have a very high BMR and activity level and, therefore, a lower weight set point, meaning they can eat far more than an adult the same size and not gain weight.

46. Social Components of Hunger:
People often eat when they are not really hungry. There are all sorts of social cues that tell people to eat, such as the convention of eating breakfast, lunch, and dinner at certain times. A large part of convention is actually the result of classical conditioning.
They body becomes conditioned to respond with the hunger reflex at certain times of the day through association with the act of eating, those times of the day have become conditioned stimuli for hunger.
Sometimes a person who has just eaten a late breakfast will still feel hungry at noon, simply because the clock says it’s time to eat.

47. Social Components of Hunger:
Food can be used as a type of comfort when a person is sad, stressed, or angry. This is an unhealthy habit that could lead to obesity.
Your culture is also a factor in the types of food you eat.
What types of food do you eat?
How does your culture affect the food you eat?

48. Eating Problems:
Obesity = there are several factors that create obesity, a condition in which the body weight of a person is 20% or more over the ideal body weight for that person’s height. Actual definition of obesity may vary. Some definitions consider 20 to 30 % to be overweight and limit obesity to 30 %.
One factor that could lead to obesity is overeating. Around the world, as developing countries get stronger economies and their food supplies become stable, the rates of obesity increase dramatically and quickly. Foods become more varied and enticing as well, and increase in variety is associated with an increase in eating beyond the physiological need to eat.

49. Eating Problems:
Anorexia Nervosa = often called anorexia, is a condition in which a person reduces eating to the point that a weight loss of 15% below expected body weight or more is the result. At a weight loss of 40% below expected body weight, hospitalization is necessary.
Hormone secretions become abnormal and heart rhythms may alter. Other physical effects of anorexia include diarrhea, loss of muscle tissue, loss of sleep, and low blood pressure.
Bulimia Nervosa = a condition in which a person develops a cycle of binging, or overeating enormous amounts of food at one sitting and then using unhealthy methods to avoid weight gain.

51. The Feels:

52. The Three Elements of Emotion:
Emotion can be defined as the “feeling” aspect of consciousness, characterized by three elements: a certain physical arousal, a certain behavior that reveals the feeling to the outside world, and an inner awareness.

53. The physiology of emotion:
Physically, when a person experiences an emotion, an arousal is created by the sympathetic nervous system.
The heart rate increases, breathing becomes more rapid, the pupils dilate, and the mouth may become dry. Think about the last time you were angry and then about the last time you were frightened. Weren’t the physical symptoms pretty similar? Although facial expressions do differ among various emotional responses emotions are difficult to distinguish from one another on the basis of outward bodily reactions alone.
In fact it is quiet easy to mistake a person who is actually afraid or angry as being aroused if the person’s face is not clearly visible, which can lead to much miscommunication and misunderstanding.

55. The physiology of emotion:
The amygdala = a small area located within the limbic system on each side of the brain is associated with fear in both humans and animals and is also involved in the facial expressions of human emotion. When the amygdala is damaged in rats they cannot be classically conditioned to fear new objects they apparently cannot remember to be afraid.
In humans damage to the amygdala has been associated with similar effects and with impairment of the ability to determine emotions from looking at the facial expressions of others.

56. The physiology of emotion:
One area of emotional investigation has been the frontal lobes. Researchers have found that positive emotions are associated with the left frontal lobe of the brain whereas negative feelings such as sadness, anxiety, and depression seem to be a function of the right frontal lobe.
In studies where the electrical activity of the brain has been tracked using an EEG, left frontal lobe activation has been associated with pleasant emotions while right fontal lobe activity has been associated with negative emotional states. Furthermore increased left frontal lobe activity has been found in individuals trained in meditation, and for the participants in this study, greater left frontal lobe activity was accompanied by a reduction in their anxiety as well as a boos in their immune system.

57. The physiology of emotion:
The ability to interpret the facial expressions of others as a particular emotion also seems to be a function of one side of the brain more than the other.
Researchers have found that when people are asked to ID the emotion on another person’s face, the right hemisphere is more active than the left particularly in women.
This difference begins weakly in childhood but increases in adulthood, with children being less able to ID negative emotions as well as positive emotions when compared to adults.

58. The behavior of emotion: emotional expression
How do people behave when in the grip of an emotion?

59. The behavior of emotion: emotional expression
There are facial expressions, body movements, and actions that indicate to others how a person feels. Frown, smiles, and sad expressions combine with hand gestures, the turning of one’s body, and spoken words to produce an understanding of emotion.
People fight, run, kiss, and yell along with countless other actions stemming from the emotions they feel.
Facial expression can vary across different cultures, although some aspects of facial expression seem to be universal.

60. The behavior of emotion: emotional expression
Charles Darwin was one of the first to theorize that emotions were a product of evolution and, therefore, universal all human beings, no matter their culture, would show the same facial expression because the facial muscles evolved to communicate specific information to onlookers.
For example an angry face would signal to onlookers that they should act submissively or expect a fight. Although Darwin’s ideas were not in line with the behaviorist movement of the 20th century, which promoted environment rather than heredity as the cause of behavior, other researchers have since found evidence that there is a universal nature to a least 7 basic emotions, giving more support to the evolutionary perspective within psychology.

61. The behavior of emotion: emotional expression
Even children who are blind from birth can produce the appropriate facial expressions for any given situation without even having witnessed those expressions on others, which strongly supports the idea that emotional expression have their basis in biology rather than in learning.
Paul Ekman (remember the micro expression guy and consultant for Inside Out) found that people of many different cultures can consistently recognize at least 7 facial expressions: anger, fear, disgust, happiness, surprise, sadness, and contempt.

62. The behavior of emotion: emotional expression
Although the emotions and the related facial expressions appear to be universal, exactly when, where, and how any emotion is expressed may be determined by the culture.
Display rules = learned ways of controlling displays of emotion in social settings, and tell people based on cultural rules when to express emotion.
For example Japanese people have strict social rules about showing emotion in public situations they simply do not show emotion, remaining cool, calm, and collected at least on the outside. But if in a more private setting they can show their emotions like a parent scolding a child at home versus in a public place.

63. The behavior of emotion: emotional expression
What are some ways display rules differ from male to female boys and girls?

64. Subjective experience: Labeling emotion
The third element of emotion is interpreting the subjectives feeling by giving it a label: anger, fear, disgust, happiness, sadness, shame, interest, and so on.
Another way of labeling this element is to call it the “cognitive element” because the labeling process is a matter of retrieving memories of previous similar experiences, perceiving the context of the emotion, and coming up with a solution a label.

65. What is emotional intelligence?

66. Emotional intelligence:
Emotional intelligence is the ability to identify and manage your own emotions and the emotions of others. It is generally said to include three skills:
1. Emotional awareness, including the ability to identify your own emotions and those of others;
2.The ability to harness emotions and apply them to tasks like thinking and problems solving;
3. The ability to manage emotions, including the ability to regulate your own emotions, and the ability to cheer up or calm down another person.