1. Biochemistry

2. Goal of all Atoms
The goal of all atoms is to have a stable outer energy level. This goal leads to the bonding of atoms. (Octet rule)
Bonding can happen two ways.
Sharing of valence electrons
Transfer of valence electrons

3. Bonding 2 Types of Bonding
Covalent bonding – when 1 or more electrons are SHARED between atoms
Ex. Water (H2O) – Hydrogen and Oxygen each share 1 electron
Ionic Bonding – when 1 or more electrons are TRANSFERRED between atoms
Ex. Salt (NaCl) – Sodium looses an electron making it a +1 ion and Chlorine gains an electron making it a - 1 ion. Opposites attract and an ionic bond is formed

5. Chemical Bonds

6. Chemical and Structural Formulas
Chemical Formula – each element is represented by its chemical symbol and the number of atoms is shown in subscripts. Ex. H2O, CO2, CH4, C6H12O6
Structural Formula – it show the chemical symbol of each element and how they are bonded to one another.

7. Structural Formula

8. Amino Acid Structural Formula

9. Chemical reactions
Chemical change or chemical reactions – whenever different substances are formed a chemical change or reaction has occurred
Reactants – substance that were present before the chemical reaction
Products – the new substances produced by the chemical reaction

10. Make up of Biological Molecules
** The cell is a complex chemical factory containing some of the same elements found in the nonliving environment. - Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen are present in the greatest percentages. 
- Sulfur, phosphorus, magnesium, iodine, iron, calcium, sodium, chlorine, and potassium are found in smaller quantities in living things.
** Organisms consist of both organic and inorganic compounds.

11. - Elemental Properties H C O N S P Hydrogen Carbon Oxygen Nitrogen
Electropositive
Forms 1 covalent bond
ethanol
Hydrogen
Carbon
Oxygen
Nitrogen
Sulphur
Phosphorus H C H O C
Forms 4 covalent bonds
acetic acid
Strongly electronegative
Forms 2 covalent bonds O C N H O
Weakly electronegative
Forms 3 covalent bonds N
glycine
Weakly electronegative
Forms 2 covalent bonds H O S H N C C O H
In oxidized form
Forms 5 covalent bonds H P H C H O
cysteine S H
R -- O -- P -- O -- H -
phosphate side group O

12. Common elements in a Cell
The most common elements in a cell are:
Hydrogen (H) 59%
Oxygen (O) 24%
Carbon (C) 11%
Nitrogen (N) 4%
Others such as phosphorus (P) and sulphur (S) 2% combined

13. 2 TYPES OF COMPOUNDS
Organic Molecules – is when carbon and hydrogen are bonded together (C-H bonds)
- associated with living things and their products
ex. carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids
CH4 (methane), C6H12O6 (Sugar), NH2RHC2OOH (Amino Acid)
2. Inorganic Molecules - lack carbon and hydrogen bonds
--when carbon is present it is usually combined with oxygen
ex. carbon dioxide, inorganic acids, salts, water, and bases
CO2 (carbon dioxide), H2O2 (hydrogen peroxide), NaCl (Salt)

14. Compounds to Know: H2O = Water CH4 = Methane
COOH = Carboxyl group (makes all organic acids organic acids)
OH- = Hydroxyl group (excess concentration of these in solution makes solution a base)
NH2 = Amino group (plays important role in making proteins)

15. Chemical Bonds (covalent and ionic)
Chemical bonds hold the atoms in a molecule together.
** In general, the more chemical bonds a molecule has the more energy it contains.

16. Basic Organic Compounds in Living Things
Major Categories of Organic Compounds
carbohydrates (sugars and starches)
lipid (fats, oils, and waxes)
proteins (functional and structural)
nucleic acids (RNA and DNA)

17. Nucleic Acid

20. Starch

21. Carbohydrates
1. Carbohydrates: contain the elements C,H,O -- made up of subunits called simple sugars or monosaccharides -- include a variety of sugars and starches,
ex. glycogen and glucose
3 Types
Monosaccarcharides
Disaccarcharides
Polysaccarcharides
all sugar names end in -OSE 

22. Monosaccharides
Monosaccharides: single or simple sugars all have the same basic molecular formula as glucose -- include glucose, fructose, and galactose (all isomers)
isomer: compounds with the same molecular formula, but different structural formulas -- have different properties
pentoses: 5 carbon sugars
2 important pentose sugars
deoxyribose -- sugar in DNA
ribose -- sugar in RNA

23. Fructose (monosaccharide)

24. Disaccharides
double sugars -- consist of 2 monosaccharides joined by dehydration synthesis
ex. (form maltose from two glucose molecules)
Some disaccharide isomers include:
sucrose (table sugar) maltose (seed sugar) lactose (milk sugar)

25. Sucrose (disaccharide)

26. Polysaccharides:
more than two monosaccharides joined by dehydration synthesis -- include the starches and complex sugars
Polysaccharide examples
glycogen -- animal starch stored in the liver and muscles
cellulose -- undigestible in humans -- forms cell walls
starches -- used as energy storage

27. Raffinose (polysaccharide)

28. Carbohydrates Main Function - ENERGY:
When carbohydrates are in our body, they are being broken down and used as energy.
When the body doesn't need to use the carbohydrates for energy, it stores them into the liver and muscles and is called glycogen.
When the liver and muscles cells cannot store anymore glycogen, it is turned into fat.
When our body needs a quick boost of energy, it converts glycogen into energy.
When it needs a prolonged burst of energy, it converts fat to energy.

29. Major Types of Reactions in Living Things
1. Dehydration Synthesis: chemical combination of two small molecules to make one larger molecule caused by the remove of water
Dehydration – removing water + Synthesis – combining of two smaller things to make 1 larger thing
2. Hydrolysis: (digestion) -- addition of water to a larger molecule to form two or more smaller molecules -- opposite of dehydration synthesis
hydro(water) + lysis(break apart) = break apart with water

30. Proteins
-- The presence of nitrogen distinguishes proteins from carbohydrates and fats.
Major Protein Functions
1. Growth and repair 2. Energy 3. Buffer -- helps keep body pH constant
Amino acids -- the building blocks of proteins – there are 20 different amino acids
Examples of proteins include insulin, hemoglobin, and enzymes.
** There are an extremely large number of different proteins. The bases for variability include differences in the number, kinds and sequences of amino acids in the proteins.

31. Amino Acids 3 groups that make up amino acids 1.) An amine group -NH2
2.) A carboxyl group -COOH
3.) An R group

32. Peptide Bonds Peptide bond: single bond formed between two amino acids
Dipeptide: two peptide bonds
Polypeptide: 3 or more peptide bonds
Repeated linking of amino acids results in a polypeptide(protein) being formed.
A protein is usually composed of one or more polypeptide chains.
(ex.) amino acid + amino acid --> dipeptide

33. Peptide Bond

34. Functions of Proteins
Structural protein -components of cell structures and organelles(little organs inside cells)
Functional protein -enzymes that catalyze(speed up) chemical reactions

35. Lipids Lipids (Fats) ex. fats, oils, waxes
Function of Lipids -- lipids chiefly function in energy storage, protection, and insulation -- fats -- chiefly in animals -- oils and waxes -- chiefly in plants -- lipids along with proteins are key components of cell membranes -- made of the elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
-- each fat is formed from a dehydration synthesis rxn. of 3 fatty acids and a glycerol molecule
3 Fatty Acids + Glycerol > 1 Fat + 3 HOH

36. There are two types of Lipids
saturated - contain no double bonds in hydrocarbon chain;
carbons are "saturated" with the most hydrogen's possible
unsaturaated - there are double bonds between some of the carbons in the hydrocarbon chain

37. Saturated Lipid

38. Unsaturated Lipid