1. Race & Ethnicity in Canada
Ch. 14
Race & Ethnicity in Canada

2. What is ‘Race’?
A socially constructed category of people who share biologically transmitted traits that members of a society consider important
Scientists invented the concept of “race” in the nineteenth century and identified 3 racial types:
Caucasoid, Negroid, and Mongoloid

3. Racial composition in Canada
The three “racial” categories differ in only 6% of their genes, less than the genetic variation within each category
The Canadian census asks people to identify themselves as Aboriginal, Black, and Visible Minority
44.1% of Canadians multiracial ancestry

4. Canada’s Demographic Composition
2011 Census:
Caucasian or white 76.7%
Visible minority 19.1%
Aboriginal %
The largest visible minority populations are in B.C (27.3%) and ON (25.92%)

5. A shared cultural heritage
Ethnicity
A shared cultural heritage
Objective criteria: ancestry, dress, religion, language
Subjective criteria: the internalization of a distinctive social identity
Important: ethnic distinctiveness should not be viewed as racial

6. Minorities
Any category of people distinguished by physical or cultural difference that a society sets apart and subordinates
Distinctive identity and experience subordination
Though not always less than 50%

7. Multiculturalism Canada recognizes two types of multiculturalism
Traditional multiculturalism focuses on individual rights
Modern multiculturalism is concerned with the survival of cultural groups
Federal policy on multiculturalism has been criticized for emphasizing group differences and for its perceived special treatment of minority groups
Aboriginal fight for autonomy is yet another complication of Canadian multiculturalism.
We pride ourselves on being a multicultural society, yet….

8. The Problem of Nationalism
Nationalism is produced by an 'us' and 'them' orientation.
Tends to be destructive to multiculturalism.
Two types of nationalism:
A community of citizens who express loyalty and patriotic attachment to a shared set of values, constitutes civic nationalism.
Ethnic nationalism involves a tracing of roots, and a search for identity, and political recognition.

9. Race and Ethnicity Race and ethnicity are not necessarily connected
racial groups are set apart from others because of visible physical differences
ethnic groups differ from others on the basis of national origin or distinctive cultural patterns.

10. Racism and Ethnic Inequality
Ethnic group: a category of people who are distinguished by others or themselves on the basis of cultural or nationality characteristics
Race is considered a social construct
some use the term racialized group
a category of people who have been singled out, by others or themselves, as inferior or superior, on the basis of subjectively selected physical characteristics like skin colour or eye shape

11. Roots of “Race” Classification schemes since 1700s Politics of “race”:
Traits somewhat arbitrary: Why skin colour and not eye colour?
Eg. Jane Elliot’s experiment in “Eye of the Storm” (1970) and A Class Divided (PBS 1985)
Watch the video at
Politics of “race”:
people perceive others to be different, and
use perceptions to justify differential treatment

12. Majority and Minority Groups
Majority (or dominant) group is one that is advantaged and has superior resources and rights in society
Minority (or subordinate group) is one that is disadvantaged, subjected to discrimination, and regards itself as an object of discrimination, e.g., people of colour, disabled, and gays,lesbians, and trans people

13. Types of Majority-Minority Interaction Patterns
Pluralism: a state in which racial and ethnic minorities are distinct but have social parity
Multiculturalism in Canada: policy 1971 and Act in 1988
Assimilation: minorities gradually adopt patterns of the dominant culture becoming similar to the dominant group
Miscegenation: biological reproduction by partners of different racial categories
Segregation: physical and social separation of categories of people
Genocide (“ethnic cleansing”): systematic killing of one category of people by another

14. Canada’s foreign-born population

15. Minority Groups in Canada
The “Longitudinal Survey of Immigrants to Canada” (The Daily, Statistics Canada, 2005) indicates that on the whole, new immigrants are happy with choice to come to Canada, but face many difficulties:
46% said finding an adequate job
26% said learning English or French

16. Social Exclusion of Minorities
Social exclusion of minorities is due to selective ethnic and racial inclusion by the majority group
Exclusion occurs because one group wants to defend its social status or resources against another
Minority groups are seen as 'others', and barriers are built against them when they are perceived as competition.
Historically immigrants were shunned, and tolerated only because Canada needed their labour.

17. Socio-economic stratification in Canada
Based on race and ethnicity
English, Japanese, and French Canadians have the highest incomes
Recent immigrants and visible minorities are at the bottom of the scale
Aboriginal employment lags behind although some gains very recently

18. The Vertical Mosaic in Canada
Late sociologist John Porter called Canadian society a vertical mosaic
English and French Canadians exist at the top of the economic hierarchy and ethnic minorities are situated at or near the bottom
The vertical mosaic persists because of several factors such as exclusionary practices by the majority, and migration and self-organizing practices
Vertical mosaic is a system of racial stratification:
System of inequality in which race is the major criterion for rank and rewards

19. White Privilege and Internalized Dominance
White privilege: privilege that accrues to people who have “white” skin, trace their ancestry to Europe, and think of themselves as European Canadians or WASPs
Internalized dominance: all the ways that White people learn they are normal, feel included, and do not think of themselves as “other” or “different”

20. Hate groups in Canada Neo Nazis Christian Identity Movement
Holocaust Denial group (Ernst Zundel was one of Canada’s most prolific Holocaust deniers)
Racist Skinhead groups (Individuals from groups such as the Northern Hammerskins, the Final Solution Skins, the Aryan Resistance Movement (ARM) have been responsible for assaults, gay-bashing and murder in Canada)

21. Hate in London, ON

22. Islamophobia
Irrational fear, dislike or prejudice against Islam or Muslims
Is becoming a serious problem in Canada
Ontario legislature passed anti-Islamophobia legislation Feb. 23, 2017
Federal government considering similar policy
Nathalie Derosier, who introduced motion said:
“You don’t want discrimination to become internalized, for people to stop seeing themselves as full citizens, as having the ability to contribute fully in a society, and that’s the reason you need to denounce hatred and discrimination”

23. Anti-Islamophobia Legislation
“No matter the colour of your skin, which part of the world you come from, what language you speak, whether you attend a mosque on Friday, a synagogue on a Saturday or church on a Sunday, every distinct element of who we are as a people comes together to form this beautiful mosaic that is Canada.”
Patrick Brown Ontario PC leader, who supported Ontario motion

24. Prejudice and Stereotypes
Prejudice is an irrational, negative attitude about people based on such characteristics as racialization, gender, age, religion or sexual orientation (a pre-judgement)
Prejudices are rooted in stereotypes
Stereotypes are overgeneralizations about the appearance, behaviour, or other characteristics of all members of a group
Causes “stereotype threat” where the stereotype becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy.

25. Prejudice leads to Racism and Discrimination
Racism: a set of attitudes, beliefs, and practices used to justify the superior treatment of one racialized group and the inferior treatment of another racialized group
Discrimination: unequal treatment based on racism and prejudice
Ethnocentrism: the assumption that one’s own group and way of life are superior to all others (positive and negative forms)

26. Prejudice > Racism > Discrimination
Two main categories of discrimination:
Individual discrimination consists of one-on-one acts by members of the dominant group that harm members of the subordinate group or their property
Institutional discrimination consists of the day-to-day practices of organizations and institutions that have a harmful impact on members of subordinate groups

27. Racism in Canada
A 2007 Leger Marketing survey found 47% of Canadians admitting to being at least slightly racist
Also found 92% have witnessed racist behavior
A 2005 Ipsos-Reid survey found that 17% of respondents believed they have been victims of racism.
(from Canadian Race Relations Foundation)

28. Racism in Canada (cont.)
Racial attitudes in Canada have become more tolerant in recent decades.
Yet, a 2009 study of 120 York University students indicates that while people may not be overtly racist, they are indifferent to overt racism of others (bystander effect?)
Those with the greatest difficulty in accepting other races believe race is a biological fact as opposed to a socially constructed idea.

29. Scapegoat Theory Can become overt discrimination and racism
Prejudice springs from frustration among people who are themselves disadvantaged
Prejudice is a way to express anger
Produces feelings of superiority
Scapegoat: a person or category of people, typically with little power, whom people unfairly blame for their own troubles
Can become overt discrimination and racism
Does this explain Islamophobia?

30. Adorno’s Authoritarian Personality Theory
A personality trait of certain individuals who show Intolerance towards all minorities
They are rigid moralists with little education who see things as clear-cut matters of right and wrong
They view society as naturally competitive and hierarchical

31. Robert Merton’s Typology of Prejudice and Discrimination
The relationship between prejudice and discrimination is complex
Four patterns:
1. Unprejudiced nondiscriminatory = integration
2. Unprejudiced and discriminatory = institutional discrimination
3. Prejudiced and nondiscriminatory = latent bigotry
4. Prejudiced and discriminatory = outright bigotry

32. Forms of Racism in Canadian Society
Interpersonal racism: red-necked (explicit), e.g., Heritage Front and polite (implicit) racism (Pattern #4, according to Merton)
Institutional (intentional) racism: e.g., employment restrictions to groups, and systemic (unintentional) racism, e.g., height and weight restrictions (Pattern #2, according to Merton)

33. Forms of Racism in Canadian Society (cont.)
Societal racism: unconscious patterns that perpetuate a racialized order, e.g., colour symbolism (Pattern #2, according to Merton)
Everyday racism: seemingly benign ideas about the relative superiority or inferiority of certain groups (Pattern #3, according to Merton)

34. Forms of Racism in Canadian Society (cont.)
Active racism: an act intending to exclude or make a person feel inferior because of his/her minority group status
Passive racism: an act of being complicit in another’s racism
Cultural racism: values that reinforce the interests of the dominant group and undermine the interests of the subordinate group, e.g., hostility to employment equity

35. Sociological Perspectives
Functionalist Perspective
believe that inequality benefits society by allowing for the discussion of a wider range of opinions, perspectives, and values
also maintain that inequality produces social conflict that intensifies people's sense of identity and belonging, as well as gives groups more cohesion along with a better sense of purpose

36. Perspectives (cont.)
Conflict perspective: Prejudice is a product of social conflict
focus is on how one group more than another benefits from differentiation, exclusion, and institutional racism.
Symbolic Interactionist Perspective
Looks at the social construction of ethnic differences and the subordination of minority groups, through racial labels

37. Perspectives (cont.) Feminist and Anti-Racist Perspectives:
Gendered racism: interactive effect of racism and sexism in exploiting Indigenous and visible minority women
Intersectional theorizing: a move toward an understanding of the myriad ways in which oppressions are linked,e.g., wages of women of colour vs. White women

38. Social Consequences of Racism
Racism is exacerbated by gender for women of minority groups.
Watch: The Colour of Beauty (NFB, 2010)
Minority groups are disproportionately poor and, when employed, face discrimination in the workplace.
Minorities are also over-represented in the criminal justice system as both perpetrators and victims.
In Canada, the social problems resulting from exclusion, discrimination, and prejudice are most evident among Aboriginal peoples

39. Canada’s Hidden Shame: The “Indian Problem” (Augie Fleras 2005)
“Excessive emphasis on the Indian problem to the exclusion of positive dimensions has the effect of “framing” aboriginal people as a problem people…aboriginal peoples are not a problem but peoples whose lives are complicated by forces beyond their control.” (Augie Fleras 2005, p. 302)

40. A Few Facts…
Aboriginal peoples (First Nations, Inuit, and Métis) now make up 4.1% of Canadian population.
“Aboriginal people as a group remain at the bottom of the socioeconomic heap” (Fleras)
For example:
Only 42% age 15+ employed (vs. 66% of non-Aboriginal)
Post-secondary education: 48% (vs 65% for non-Aboriginal)
Average income $20,000 (vs. $27,600 for non-Aboriginal)
Unemployment rate is 3 times national average
Life expectancy lower and fertility higher than non-Aboriginal
Median age 28 for Aboriginals compared to 41 in non-aboriginals
(Source: Aboriginal Statistics at a Glance 2nd edition StatCan 2011

41. Proportion of admissions to adult correctional services, 2007/2008
Source:

42. The Main Problems…
A 2002 U.N. report called the maltreatment of Canada’s aboriginal people “a national tragedy and a shameful disgrace”
Key problems:
Lack of access to land
Appropriation of resources
Compromised culture and identity
No claim to nationhood or autonomy
No self-governance

43. Results: Powerlessness because of landlessness
Policy mistreatment because of “(o)ne hundred years of servitude, of protectionism and paternalism” (Buckley, 1992 in Fleras, 2005)
The internalization of powerlessness and impotence has become “self-hatred” (i.e. suicide, domestic abuse, alcoholism, drug use)
Erosion of cultural values and language

44. Residential School System
Lasted for more than 160 years
Early schools run by religious organizations
In 1874, the Canadian federal government became involved
The last federally run residential school closed in Saskatchewan in 1996 and the last band run residential school closed in 1998
Purpose: to “integrate” Aboriginals into Canadian society
Approximately 80,000 of those who attended still alive today (from Antone and Francis, 2008)

45. Thomas Moore before and after his entrance into the Regina Indian Residential School in Saskatchewan in 1874 (thanks to Elaine Antone and Natasha Francis for this example)

46. Consequences of Residential School System
Children removed from families
Lost family connections, as well as language and culture
Many suffered abuse – physical, psychological and sexual
Often parents turned to drink and drugs to cope with loss of children
Those who attended lost parenting ability and new generations are also suffering consequences
Where are the Children? Healing the Legacy of the Residential Schools (Legacy of Hope Foundation)

47. Reservation Life
In past reserves were “holding pens” to make Canada “safe” for “settlers”
Evolved into areas of dire poverty fraught with social consequences of the conditions
Now, inadequate housing and basic services
Less than 50% of homes (2003) have water and sewage connections
On some reserves 95% unemployed or on welfare
Women complain of “male-dominated” band councils, sexism, abuse

48. Aboriginal Women Cultures of past had matrilineal descent
Women more power
Change when “whites” came – imposed European patriarchal structure and cultural change
Then 1985 Indian Act stripped status from women who married non-aboriginals (since repealed)
Studies show “aboriginal women rank among the most severely disadvantaged” in Canada
Suffer from violence, abuse, inadequate housing and living conditions, alcohol and drug abuse

49. Aboriginal Youth Problems
Trapped between two cultures
Problem of “anomie” (Durkheim)
Lack positive role models and often suffer abuse
Results:
Substance and solvent abuse
High suicide rates (as high as 470/ compared to 14/ in general population)
Prostitution, petty crime
High youth incarceration rates

50. Attempts to find solutions…
Canada has aboriginal rights entrenched in constitution
Has been some progress in increasing power and economic resources, access to higher education and more Native Studies programs
But reality does not live up to ideals
Debate: is assimilation or self-governing autonomy better?

51. A New Social Contract
One proposal is self governance for Native peoples (i.e. see Cairns, 2000, 2003; Christie, 2002; Fleras, 2005)
In 1997 “Statement of Reconciliation,” Canadian government promised to “create new partnership” with aboriginals
Recognition of aboriginal identity and promise to work toward full aboriginal participation in Canadian society
But progress has been slow