1. Socioemotional Development in Infancy
Children 8
Socioemotional Development in Infancy
John W. Santrock

2. Socioemotional Development in Infancy
How Do Emotions and Personality Develop in Infancy?
How Does Attachment Develop in Infancy?
How Do Social Contexts Influence Socioemotional Development in Infancy?

3. Images of Children The story of Tom’s fathering Work-at-home father
How Do Emotions and Personality Develop in Infancy?
Images of Children
The story of Tom’s fathering
Work-at-home father
Extensive father-child interactions
Mother spends extensive time with Tom in evening after work
Both balance careers and child care

4. Emotional Development
How Do Emotions and Personality Develop in Infancy?
Emotional Development
Emotion: feeling or affect
Physiological arousal
Conscious experience
Behavioral expression
Positive or negative
Varies in intensity
Influenced by one’s perceptions

5. Biological Foundations and Experience
How Do Emotions and Personality Develop in Infancy?
Biological Foundations and Experience
Emotions
involve early-developing regions of human nervous system, limbic system, brain stem
Emotional responses in infancy result from developmental changes
Role of relationships

6. A Functionalist View of Emotion
How Do Emotions and Personality Develop in Infancy?
A Functionalist View of Emotion
Cannot separate emotional responses from evoking situation or context
Signals attempts to adapt to specific roles
Emotions are relational
linked with an individual’s goals

7. Early Developmental Changes in Emotion
How Do Emotions and Personality Develop in Infancy?
Early Developmental Changes in Emotion
Two broad types of emotions
Primary: present in humans, animals
Appear within first 6 months of life
Include surprise, anger, joy, sadness, fear
Promote caregiver-infant interactions

8. Early Developmental Changes in Emotion
How Do Emotions and Personality Develop in Infancy?
Early Developmental Changes in Emotion
Two broad types of emotions
Self-conscious: requires cognition
Empathy, jealousy, embarrassment first appear about 1½ years
Pride, shame, guilt first appear about 2½ years
Enables child to use social standards and evaluate own behavior

9. Crying Basic Cry Anger Cry Pain Cry
How Do Emotions and Personality Develop in Infancy?
Crying
Pain Cry
Anger Cry
Basic Cry
Sudden loud, long initial cry followed
by extended period of breath
holding; without preliminary moaning
Similar to basic cry, with more excess
air forced through vocal chords
Rhythmic pattern usually consisting
of cry, briefer silence, shorter
inspiratory whistle, and brief rest

10. Crying Controversy among experts
How Do Emotions and Personality Develop in Infancy?
Crying
Controversy among experts
Quick response is important ingredient in strong caregiver-infant bond; develops trust and security
Quick response increases crying and incidence, reinforces and spoils child
Effects of swaddling versus massaging

11. Smiling Reflexive smile Social smile
How Do Emotions and Personality Develop in Infancy?
Smiling
Reflexive smile
Not a response to external stimuli
Happens during first month after birth, usually during sleep
Social smile
Appears about 2 to 3 months of age
Response to external stimulus, faces

12. Fear First appears about 6 months of age
How Do Emotions and Personality Develop in Infancy?
Fear
First appears about 6 months of age
Stranger anxiety: fear and wariness of strangers
Intense from 9 to 12 months
Less intense reaction to children, smiling strangers
Separation protest: distress at being separated from caregiver
peaks at about 15 months in U.S. infants

13. Separation Anxiety in Four Cultures
Antiguan Guatemala
GuatemalanIndian
Israeli Kibbutzim
African Bushman
Percent of children who cried when mothers left 20
Age (in months) 15 5 25 30 35 10
100 80 60 40
Fig. 8.3

14. How Do Emotions and Personality Develop in Infancy?
Social Referencing
“Reading” emotional cues in others to help determine how to act in a particular situation
Infants “check” with mother before acting in second year

15. Emotional Regulation and Coping
How Do Emotions and Personality Develop in Infancy?
Emotional Regulation and Coping
Emotional regulation: effectively managing arousal to adapt, reach goal
Infants move from relying on caregiver soothing to self-soothing strategies, redirected attention, self-distraction
Context can affect regulation

16. Describing and Classifying Temperament
How Do Emotions and Personality Develop in Infancy?
Describing and Classifying Temperament
Temperament: one’s behavioral style and characteristic emotional response
Chess and Thomas: three basic types
Easy: positive mood, adapts easily
Difficult: negative, cries, adapts slowly
Slow-to-warm-up: low activity level, low adaptability and intensity of mood

17. Kagan’s Behavioral Inhibition
How Do Emotions and Personality Develop in Infancy?
Kagan’s Behavioral Inhibition
Focus on shy, subdued, timid child
Inhibition to the unfamiliar
Inhibition shows considerable stability from infancy through early childhood
Continuity shown for both inhibition and lack of inhibition

18. Rothbart and Bates’ Classification
How Do Emotions and Personality Develop in Infancy?
Rothbart and Bates’ Classification
Extraversion/surgency: positive affect, impulsivity, sensation seeking
Negative affectivity: easily distressed
Effortful control (self-regulation): high efforts to control affect

19. Biological Foundations and Experience
How Do Emotions and Personality Develop in Infancy?
Biological Foundations and Experience
Physiological characteristics associated with different temperaments
Genetic influences
Influence of social contexts can vary
Goodness of fit: match between child’s temperament and environmental demands

20. Parenting and the Child’s Temperament
How Do Emotions and Personality Develop in Infancy?
Parenting and the Child’s Temperament
Attention to and respect for individuality
Structuring the child’s environment
The “difficult child” and packaged parenting programs
Flexible caregiver responses
Avoid “labeling” and self-fulfilling prophecy

21. Personality Development
How Do Emotions and Personality Develop in Infancy?
Personality Development
Trust versus mistrust: Erikson’s first stage of development
Infants experience world as either secure and comfortable or insecure and uncomfortable
Continuity not guaranteed

22. Developing a Sense of Self and Independence
How Do Emotions and Personality Develop in Infancy?
Developing a Sense of Self and Independence
The Self
Separation and individualization process
Visual self-recognition
Independence
Autonomy versus shame and doubt
self-determination and pride or overcontrol creates shame and doubt

23. Development of Self-Recognition in Infancy
Percent of infants who recognized themselves in a mirror
Age (in months)
21-24
9-12
15-18
100 80 60 40 20
Amsterdam study
Lewis and Brooks-Gunn study
Development of Self-Recognition in Infancy
Two studies on infants and children able to recognize themselves in mirror
Fig. 8.4

24. Theories of Attachment
How Does Attachment Develop in Infancy?
Theories of Attachment
Freud: Infants become attached to person or object giving oral satisfaction
Disproved by Harlow’s research: regardless of which mother fed monkeys, both preferred cloth mother contact
Erikson: First year is key for attachment

25. Harlow’s Results: Contact time with wire and cloth surrogate mothers24 6 12 18
21-25
1-5
6-10
11-10
16-20
Age (days) .
Fed by wire mother
Fed by cloth mother
Hours per day spent with wire mother
Hours per day spent with cloth mother
Mean hours per day
Harlow’s Results: Contact time with wire and cloth surrogate mothers
Fig. 8.5

26. Theories of Attachment
How Does Attachment Develop in Infancy?
Theories of Attachment
Bowlby: instinct for attachment occurs in four phases, increases chances of survival
Phase 1: birth to 2 mos.
Phase 2: from 2 to 7 mos.
Phase 3: from 7 to 24 mos.
Phase 4: from 24 mos. on

27. How Does Attachment Develop in Infancy?
Measuring Attachment
Ainsworth’s strange situation: measures infant’s attachment to caregiver
Requires infant to move through a series of introductions, separations, and reunions
Securely attached
Insecure avoidant
Insecure resistant
Insecure disorganized

28. Cross-Cultural Comparison of Attachment:30 10 40 50 60 70 20
Japan
U.S.
Germany
Percentage of infants
Resistant
Secure
Avoidant
Cross-Cultural Comparison of Attachment:
Ainsworth’s strange situation applied to infants in three countries in 1988
Fig. 8.6

29. The Significance of Attachment
How Does Attachment Develop in Infancy?
The Significance of Attachment
Some developmentalists believe secure attachment in first year provides important foundation for psychological development
Others believe too much emphasis is placed on attachment bond in infancy
Ignores diversity of socializing agents and contexts

30. Caregiving Styles and Attachment Classification
How Does Attachment Develop in Infancy?
Caregiving Styles and Attachment Classification
Baby attachment
Caregiver behaviors
Securely attached
Sensitive to signals, consistently available
Avoidant
Unavailable, rejecting
Resistant
Inconsistent responses
Disorganized
Neglect, physical abuse

31. The Family The Transition to Parenthood
How Do Social Contexts Influence Socioemotional Development in Infancy?
The Family
The Transition to Parenthood
New parents must adapt to new demands on time, finances, and roles
Babies affect parents’ marriage
Most less satisfied after child is born
Almost 1/3 happier, more interested in relationships, more efficient

32. Reciprocal Socialization
How Do Social Contexts Influence Socioemotional Development in Infancy?
Reciprocal Socialization
Socialization is bidirectional
Scaffolding: positive parental behavior supports children’s efforts
Children’s skills increase
Support modified to suit children’s level of development

33. The Family The family as a system
How Do Social Contexts Influence Socioemotional Development in Infancy?
The Family
The family as a system
Made up of subsystems defined by gender, generation, and role; dyadic and polyadic
Indirect and direct influences from marital relations, parenting, and infant behavior

34. The Family Infant caregiving
How Do Social Contexts Influence Socioemotional Development in Infancy?
The Family
Infant caregiving
Mothers and fathers both competent caregivers, but behave differently
Mothers: center on child-care activities
Fathers: more likely to center on play, rough-and-tumble activities

35. Child Care Policies Around the World
How Do Social Contexts Influence Socioemotional Development in Infancy?
Child Care Policies Around the World
Five types of parental leave
Maternity leave
Paternity leave
Parental leave
Child-rearing leave
Family leave

36. Patterns of Use of Child Care
How Do Social Contexts Influence Socioemotional Development in Infancy?
Patterns of Use of Child Care
High reliance and early entry
By 4 months, nearly 3/4 of infants have had some non-maternal child care
Socioeconomic factors affect amount and type of care
Income level, education
Dependence on mother’s income

37. High-Quality Child Care
How Do Social Contexts Influence Socioemotional Development in Infancy?
High-Quality Child Care
Small group sizes
Low child-adult ratios
Teachers: specialized training, formally educated, experienced
Caregiver sensitivity to children
Children linked to higher competence

38. Child Care Amount of child care Family and parenting influences
How Do Social Contexts Influence Socioemotional Development in Infancy?
Child Care
Amount of child care
High-quality care and fewer hours in care lead to positive outcomes
Family and parenting influences
Influence not weakened by extensive child care; parents significant influence in children regulating emotions

39. Strategies for Child Care
How Do Social Contexts Influence Socioemotional Development in Infancy?
Strategies for Child Care
Recognize quality of parenting on your child’s development
Make good parenting decisions
Monitor your child’s development
Take time to find best child care

40. Children 8
The End