1. Theories Theories and Methods in IR
      Differences in scholarly ways of knowing what is known
Description: Some IR scholars are interested in describing events in the international system.
Theory: Some IR scholars are interested in developing theories that can be used by others to understand patterns of behavior in the international system.
Traditionalists: Use individual insight and philosophy (normative).
Behavioralists: Use mathematical models and statistics (empirical).

2. 6.5 Conservative, Liberal, and Revolutionary World Views
Goldstein suggests that these different theories and methods have produced three broad perspectives among scholars and students of IR:
Conservative: Values maintenance of the status quo and discounts the element of change in IR.
Liberal: Values reform of the status quo as an evolutionary process.
Revolutionary: Values transformation of the status quo through revolutionary and rapid change.

3. 6.6 Conservative World View
Emphasizes power politics (realpolitik) and international security issues;
States are the most important actors in the international system;
Values order (stability) as an international norm;
War and conflict are seen as part of the natural order of the international system;
Economics is an extension of state power - mercantilism or realeconomik.

4. 6.7
Liberal World View
Emphasizes the mutual benefits to be gained by interdependence and reciprocity;
Some nonstate actors rival states as important actors in the international system;
Values freedom as an international norm;
War is not a natural tendency that can be minimalized through international agreements;
Economic interactions should benefit all nations and should be based on the principle of free trade.

5. 6.8 Revolutionary World View
Emphasizes the unfair and exploitive aspects of the international system;
States are not as important as class divisions in international system;
Values justice as an international norm;
Focuses on the injustice of North-South relationships;
War is a product of underlying exploitive economic relationships.

6. 6.9 The Connection Between World Views and Paradigms
The Conservative World View: Uses the realist and neorealist paradigms 
The Liberal World View Uses the idealist and neoliberal paradigms 
The Revolutionary World View: Uses neo-Marxist world systems theory and dependency theory 

7. Lecture 6.3
IDEALISM/IDEALIST THEORY/ UTOPIANISM/RATIONALIST LIBERALISM
It refers to an approach to IR that stresses the importance of moral values, legal norms,internationalism, and harmony of interests as the guides to actions and interaction of actors.

8. Lecture 6.4
Pays little attention/respect/consideration of national interest, power and independent state survival.
It is premised on questions of what aught to be rather than questions on “what was” what is” Thus it emphasise on abstract principle rather than factual reality.
The idealist school of thought viewed IR in terms of trying to prevent wars especially after the end of world war two. The establishment of bodies such as the league of nations to which all nations would adhere to/for peaceful resolution of conflict.

9. Lecture 6.5
They view man as rational and moral being who would reason to prevent war. Idealist also placed emphasis on self determination, international law,political comity and morality
Idealism is also marked by the prominent role played by international law and international organizations in its conception of policy formation.
One of the most well-known tenets of modern idealist thinking is democratic peace theory, which holds that states with similar modes of democratic governance do not fight one another. Wilson's idealistic thought was embodied in his Fourteen points speech, and in the creation of the League of Nations.

10. Lecture 6.5
Idealism may find itself in opposition to Realism, a worldview which argues that a nation's national interest is more important than ethical or moral considerations;

11. 6.12 REALST THEORY
A) It arose as a reaction to the emphasis made by idealist on the rational and moral being which it viewed as error and utopian.
B) The theory is normative and policy oriented.
C) Carr and Morgenthau major contributors to the theory.
D) Ideas can be traced back to ancient Greeks.

12. 6.13
E) Tenets:
1. The tradition focuses on the nation-state as the principal actor in the world politics
2. The purpose of the statecraft is national survival in a hostile environment
3. Acquisition of power is the proper, rational and inevitable

13. 6.14 F) Realist define politics as the struggle for power
G) Power is sought both as a means to an end or an end in itself
F) International politics like all other politics is a struggle for power.
H) History have shown that nations active in international politics are continuously preparing for and actively involved in in or recovering from organized violence in the form of War.

14. 6.15 The assumptions that are central:
States are coherent units and are the dominant actors in world politics. This suggests that states are predominant, and they act as they coherent units.
They assume that force is an unsuitable and effective instrument of policy. Other instruments may be employed but using or threatening force is the most effective means of wielding power
Realists assume the hierarchy of issues in world politics headed by questions of military security: the high politics of military security dominates the low politics of economic and social affairs.

15. 6.15
The international system is in a constant state of anarchy. There is no actor above states capable of regulating their interactions; states must arrive at relations with other states on their own, rather than it being dictated to them by some higher controlling entity.
In pursuit of national security, states strive to attain as many resources as possible.
States are rational unitary actors each moving towards their own national interest. There is a general distrust of long-term cooperation or alliance.
The overriding 'national interest' of each state is its national security and survival.
Relations between states are determined by their levels of power derived primarily from their military and economic capabilities.

16. 6.15
The interjection of morality and values into international relations causes reckless commitments, diplomatic rigidity, and the escalation of conflict.
Sovereignare the principal actors in the international system and special attention is afforded to large powers as they have the most influence on the international stage.
International institutions, non-governmental organizations, multinational corporations, individuals and other sub-state or trans- state actors are viewed as having little independent influence.

17. 6.15
In summary, realists believe that mankind is not inherently benevolent but rather self- centered and competitive.
This perspective, which is shared by theorists such as Thomas Hobbes, views human nature as egocentric (not necessarily selfish) and conflictual unless given the right conditions under which they can coexist, contrasts with the approach of liberalism to international relations.
Further, they believe that states are inherently aggressive (offensive realism) and/or obsessed with security (defensive realism); and that territorial expansion is only constrained by opposing power(s).
This aggressive build-up, however, leads to a security dilemma where increasing one's security can bring along even greater instability as the opponent(s) builds up its own arms in response. Thus, security becomes a zero-sum game where only relative gains can be made. There are no universal principles which all states can use to guide their actions. Instead, a state must always be aware of the actions of the states around it and must use a pragmatic approach to resolve the problems that arise.

18. 6.16 J) Critique: criticism has been legion.
1. The realist defines an ideal type world politics. They allow us to imagine a world in which politics is conditionally characterized by active or potentially conflict among states, with the use of force possible at any time.
2. It has been attacked for lack of methodological consistence, imprecision in the definition of terms and for its ethical considerations/implications and overall policy costs.

19. 6.17
3. The lessons in history convinced the realist that the key to IR lay in history of power politics. Herein one finds flaw in of power theory. Because of preoccupation with the balance of power system is unidirectional.
4. Power is presented solely as an end in itself which states must pursue all the time. Carr once lamented the theory is rather static and deals with what is and ignores what aught to be and what is becoming.
5.Power seems to be an independent variable when power can also be dependent variable.

20. 6.18
6. the theory contains a near dogmatic belief in its presentation of power as the vital national interest that states pursue and defend above all else.
7. its obsession with high politics and its presumption about impermeability and centrality of the state have led to alternative approaches were non strategic diplomatic issues and non state actors are highlighted.
8. Realism has been criticized also for failing to explain post WW2 events in particular the co-operative and integrative movements in Western Europe.

21. 6.18
K) However the theory remains an important world view and one in which for generations of scholars and practices best captures the essence of the international political system.. The state system is anarchic states are central actors and the great powers are still most dominant.

22. 6.20 Postscript Life is about carrot and stick
Machiavelli: love and hate relationship
Not all people pursue power- Ghadi, King, Wilson.

23. Systems Theory 6.20 Society constitute a system of behaviour
Political life is sorrounded by biological, physical, social and psychological environments.
Political life forms an open system.
Black box model of decision making
Inputs, outputs and feedback

24. Systems Theory 6.20 Inputs- demands and supports
demands- expressions of opinions to those that make authoritative allocation
supports- commonsense meaning
Outputs- actions and decisions

25. 6.21 liberalism LIBERALISM A. Alternative to realism
B.   Six tenets of liberalism
1.    Focus of liberal theorists (what they seek to explain): cooperation
2.    Actors are diverse- NGOs, MNCs, States

26. 6.22 3.Goals are multiple, economic, social as well as military
4.Means- interdependence, issue-specific power
5.organizing principle- anarchy mitigated by norms, rules and principles of international law
6.Dynamics of international system- alternating cooperation and conflict depending on who is interacting with whom on what issue

27. 6.23
C.LIBERALISM: liberalism, institutionalism, regime theory, neo-liberalism, and complex interdependence: will use terms interchangeably.
D.States can cooperate if they have or can create interdependence.
1.Even if faced by prisoner’s dilemma states often find ways of cooperating and they do so through interdependence.

28. 6.24 . 
A.   Normative argument
1.    Democratic norms and culture- democracies rely on consent and compromise for domestic conflict resolution
E. Owen’s theory: democratic states tend not to fight other democracies but are tempted to fight non-democracies more often.

29. 6.25 DEPENDENCY THEORY Introduction
Proponents: Walter Rodney, Samir Amin, Claude Ake, Wallestian, Andre Gunder Frank etc. 
A.   Focuses on the historical origins and the subsequent development of underdevelopment.
Basic tenet that all contemporary societies are integrated into a single world economic system, the capitalist system

30. 6.26 A. Basis its roots in the Latin American historical experience
1.    which had been long in long contact with European imperialism.
2.    Been colonized in the 15th century BC and did not regain independence until first two decades of the 19thh century.

31. 6.27
A.   In the 1960s social scientist begun to construct theories to explain the inability of Latin American countries to escape from limits imposed upon them by their former colonial powers and by both political and economic dominance by the USA.
B.   Dependence- means a situation in which the economy of certain country is conditioned by the development and expansion of other economies to which the former are subjected.
C.   Sometimes termed neo colonialism- the survival of the colonial system in spite of formal recognition of political independence in emerging countries.

32. 6.28
A.   Tenets:
1.    All developing and underdeveloped states are depended on the developed as for technology, finance and capital, monetary systems and trade. Capitalist has monopoly over means of production.
2.    Dependency and monopoly is synonymous with control of exploitation.
3.    Dependency is a result of the incorporation of the developing countries into the capitalist system

33. 6.29
Incorporation was a result of imperialism and colonialism which saw the building of the first networks not for the integration of all countries economies but for the facilitation of the exploitation of raw materials to the capitalist center
B.   Solutions:
1.    Development can only be realized if capitalism is overthrown.

34. 6.30
Self-reliance through import substitution, rapid industrialization behind high tariffs.
B.   Thomas. B identified 3 components of self reliance:
1.partial disengagement- reducing proportion of trade, monetary and technical assistance with capitalist center
2. Restructuring relations- deliberate fiscal and monetary policy aimed at altering consumer values.
3. re-association

35. 6.31
Reasons for failures:
1.    Third world industries had no comparative advantage thereby creating inefficient industries
2.    The strategies were not aimed at export led growth hence crippled performance of their economies.
3.    Third world markets are small and products cannot be absorbed completely by the domestic market

36. 6.32 Due to excessive protection the quality of goods diminished
2.    Because of the need to imports machinery and technology there was Balance of payment and debt problems.

37. 6.33 Critique of the theory:
1.criticised for believing that the problems faced by LDCS are external rather than internal.
2. Degree of exploitation cannot be measured
3. Criticized for circular reasoning (the chicken egg reasoning) underdevelopment and dependency.
4.use of single independent variable
5. Tends to emphasize conflict, revolution and violence
6. Failed to define development

38. 6.34
Has contributed to the understanding of the mechanism of poverty and underdevelopment, the complexity and intensity of interaction between the developed and developing countries, the impact of internal
B.   Alliance is not alliance of countries but class in the center and ruling class in the periphery

39. 6.35
Bourgeoisie in the periphery are being bought by those in the center (collaborators within classes in the center. WHO WILL DELINK?
B.   Its survival is dependent on this, hence it cannot be nationalistic- at most it is comprador.
C.   It does not mean that every ruling class is comprador others are nationalistic

40. 6.36
A.   It’s a symbolic relationship – It is but is there is commonality of interest.
B.   Parasitic class –because it feeds upon its own people(translated also to international arena).
C.   Strategies –import substitution-Who will get what.
-         New International Economic O rder1970s (It has died/ failed )
-         realigning –South Co-operation ( G77, OAU)

41. 6.37 If ruling is Comparable why do they need to realign with others .
V.?Singapore developed as a result of linkage with the west-Opened up the economy for MNCs hence became a regional headquarters

42. 6.38
  BENEFITED:
-  Employment, Infrastructure, Generates economic spill off to the locals
-         Foreign exchange $90 billion exchange reserves
-         4 million population, 1 million foreigners, 3 and ½ thousand MNCs
Y. United Arab Emirates- success has been achieved by opening up

43. 6.39 interdependence theory
A.   INTRODUCTION
B.   Interdependence implies that actors are interrelated or connected such that something happens to at least one actor on at least one occasion, in at least one place, will affect all the actors.

44. 6.40
A.   In any given system of relations the more the more places and the more occasions, the greater independence.
B.   According to Koehene and Nye interdependence implies sensitivity
C.   Whether all actors are affected equally will define whether the interdependence is symmetrical or not

45. 6.41
A.   Symmetry is usually seen as the starting point against which actual instances may be judged. In reality it is not likely to be perfect
B.   Conversely, if one actor in a system is relatively indifferent about some change in relationships while another is crucially accepted by it, then interdependence is asymmetric.
C.   This often leads to highly manipulative set of relations with one actor or group being totally dependent upon some other actor or group.

46. 6.42
  More discerning writers recognized that interdependence, as a characteristic of relationships, could be identified with one of the most persistent features of the state system- alliance
B.   In alliance situation the degree of dependence will depend upon how much allies need each other and how dependent they are upon each other’s capability to meet external threat.
C.   2oth century has witnessed the growth of interdependence in military security issue area.

47. 6.43
A.   However recent scholarship have identified the wealth welfare economic issue area rather than military security.
B.   Complex interdependence is a term used to reflect new portrayal of reality.
C.   As an explanatory model of the world politics it assumes multiple channels of contact between societies, an absence of hierarchy among issues and disutility of military power or at best minor role for the use of force

48. 6.44 Depicted by military pacts- E.g.
B.   Independence is not always positive in outcome- EU cannot do without US power.
C.   Not all states are interdependent- though they can exchange compliments and insults.
D.   Asymmetrical- means may win/ lose but not in the same way.

49. 6.45 A. Supra-national organizations suggest interdependence
B.   But USA has refused
1.    Kyoto
2.    1972 Ballistic Missile
3.    International criminal court
4.    Zimbabwe said no to CITES

50. 6.46 Free trade benefits both sides even though it might be unequal
B.   Not all parts / individuals within states are part of the interdependence- Gokwe and Harare, Individual in Harare and one in Mukumbura, those dependent are affected.
Interdependence create vulnerabilities

51. 6.47 Even the powerful e.g. 1970 oil crisis
2.    New technology brings possibility and makes us more dependent
A.   Beef- EU benefits, Zimbabwe benefits
B.   IMF conditionality are good, but the way they are applied is questionable.

52. 6.48 game theory GAME THEORY A.INTRODUCTION
B. According to Huizinger human culture cannot be fully comprehended unless we realize that human beings ply games from childhood through old age in all dimensions of life love to making war.

53. 6.49
According to Schelling game theory is concerned with situations- games of strategy in contrast to games of skill or game of chance in which the best course of action for each participant depends on what he expects the other participants.
E. it is assumed that players will seek to maximize their gains or to minimize their losers- thus micro economics principles of utility maximization and disutility minimization

54. 6.50
Thus if people in a certain situation wish to WIN that is to accomplish an objective which the other part seeks to deny them we can sort out the intellectual process by which they calculate what kind of action, is the most likely to be advantageous to them, assuming that they believe their opponents also to be rational calculators like themselves equally interested in second guessing and trying to outwit the opponent.

55. 6.51
G. zero sum can be identified when the pay offs in the matrix added together equal to zero.
H. The Zero-sum game is the game of pure conflict, there is no cooperation on offer at all the motives displayed are totally antagonistic.
I. Again on one side is seen as a loss by the opponent.

56. 6.52
The minimax is a very useful rule to guide to follow and a stable solution will be reached. This is stable because neither player can have incentive to prefer another strategy.
K. The situational characteristics that game moves are supposed to be made without prior knowledge of what the other side has done appears to be real handicap when a more co- ordinate and cooperative strategy is sought

57. 6.53 The prisoner’s dilemna
2.    Chicken- the payoffs in the chicken game there seem to imply that behaving in a deliberately risky, if not reckless, way can be rewarded if the other side ground.
3.    Deadlock- most basic and unrepentant form of conflict. No noble ground, interest are diametrically opposed, zero-sum conflicts

58. 6.54
Both sides have an ambiguously preferred strategy that involves harming the other side
b) Although both sides preferred outcome is the other side stopping from engaging in the conflict while they continue (i.e. kill them without being killed in exchange), if they cant have that they prefer continuing the conflict over halting it.
c) Although deadlock can become another game overtime, and then may be subject to cooperation, so long as preference are truly deadlock preferences, there is no solution
d) Examples: ancient hatreds, ethnic violence, and conflicts over values

59. 6.55
Collaboration- hard because although states have incentives to agree, even after states agree on how to cooperate, there are still strong incentives to agree, even after states agree on how to cooperate, there are still strong incentives to defect (tragedy of the commons, prisoner’s dilemna)

60. 6.56
There are costs to both or all players of cooperating depends on all others contributing, so it makes little sense to contribute if nobody else does (since the goal wont be accomplished, but it also makes little sense to contribute if everybody else does since the goal will be accomplished even if you don’t contribute and you can serve the cost of compliance

61. 6.57
Both or all sides in the problem prefer mutual cooperation to mutual cheating but both prefer even more their own unilateral cheating
c) Game assumes symmetry in the positions of the actor- both are assumed as polluters, which may not be the case.
d) Examples: arms control, trade, and many environmental problems particularly over harvest of a resource.

62. 6.58
5 coordination- easy because all states have incentives to agree and once states agree on how to cooperate, there are no incentives to defect. E.g. use of English language in airline pilots
a) Two possible equilibriums, one of which benefits one side and one that benefits the other but where both prefer cooperation to non-cooperation. E.g. satellite slot allocations, navigation rights, language for air traffic controllers

63. 6.59
6. PERSuasion problems- really hard because some states have no incentives to agree and even if they agree, they still have incentives and ability to defect
a) Both strong and weak states benefit from cooperation but strong state is willing to provide all the benefits without help but prefers the weaker states contribute

64. 6.60
Weaker states have “a strong incentive to free ride, knowing that public goods… will never the less be provided” Martin
c) Burden sharing with respect to security in Europe during cold war (arguably burden sharing in Iraq war.

65. 6.61 Upstream/down stream problem.
a) Upstream states receive no direct benefits from cooperation and probably incurs costs to cooperate. Willing to cooperate if receive side payment that outweigh these costs.
b.very strong incentives for upstream states to renege on their commitments after agreements are reached
c) Examples: French reduction of pollution of Rhine river, Canadian control of dams in Columbia, nuclear weapons programs of weak states

66. 6.62
Assurance problems- all states want to collaborate and believe they will be better off if they do, but they lack perfect information and so may fail to coordinate their behavior by accident and because of excessive lack of trust.
a) Problem is one of imperfect information not one of incentive

67. 6.63
Critique
1. The theory is purely formal, quantitative set of precepts thus retaining purity but in the process has little relevance as an ideology or metaphor for containing real world situations.
2. Attempt to apply theory to real life situations is met with limitation.

68. 6.64 INTERGRATION THEORY A. Introduction
1.    Multilateralism and institution (part one course)
2.    The 20th century trend in global politics
3.    Whether it will continue and consolidate itself is tested with time.
4.    But signs exist for better- EU, and AU institutions

69. 6.65 Integration is seen both as a process and an end state
B.   The aim of the end state is:
1.    To establish a political community
2.    Ensure economic gains of cooperation
3.    Joint efforts to curtail crisis
4.    Collective reliance
5.    Policy gains if tied to each other.
6.    Avoid beggar they neighbor.

70. 6.66 Feminist theory The facts are that:
95% of the world heads are male
96% of the world’s heads of ministries are man
94% of senior positions in national policy making and intergovernmental organisation are male
Women do 705 OF THE PRODUCTIVE WORK but receive 1/10th of the world’s income
Women are disproportionately illiterate, impoverished, overworked, underrepresented and killed at birth.

71. 6.67
But not all sex specific outcomes favour men. Women’s life expectancies are consistently higher- suicide, incarceration, alcoholism, conscription, and occupational fatalities hit men harder than women.
Whether it works in whose favour it remains to be answered but political base is tilted in favour of men.

72. 6.68
Emphasise the centrality of women in international relations- as agents for change for the better.
Men are warlike than women.
The role of women is not visible because they are dominated by man.
Large numbers of women in leadership will change the character of the international system.
But increase in peaceful people may lead to disorder…others take addvantage.

73. 6.69
Modern societies are patriarchic but some societies are matrimonial – who dominates who remains a problem.
Does war becomes unacceptable if women are involved in combat, but were freedom fighters.
Did wars end with women leaders in UK, India, Sri Lanka
Are women’s views the same in relation to power or they also seek to dominate others given the opportunity.

74. 6.70
Gender drawn differences are only situational not only situational not defining totality-possibility of options exist.