1. Emotion AP Psychology – Chapter 10 Motivation and Emotion
Alice F. Short
Hilliard Davidson High School

2. Chapter Preview Theories of Motivation
Hunger, Obesity, and Eating Disorders
Motivation in Everyday Life
Emotion
Pursuit of Happiness

3. Motivation
motivation - the force that moves people to behave, think, and feel as they do
energizes, directs, and sustains behavior

4. Theories of Motivation
Evolutionary Approach
ethology – the study of animal behavior
instincts
sign stimulus – something in the environment that turns on a fixed pattern of behavior
explains motivations for sex, aggression and achievement
Drive Reduction Theory
drive reduction theory – as a drive becomes stronger, we are motivated to reduce it (drives, needs, and homeostasis)
drive – is an aroused state that occurs because of a physiological need (itch to scratch)
need – a deprivation that energizes the drive to eliminate or reduce the deprivation
homeostasis – the body’s tendency to maintain an equilibrium, or steady state
examples: temperature, blood sugar, potassium and sodium levels and oxygenation
DISCUSSION: Why is drive reduction theory not a comprehensive explanation of motivation?
Optimum Arousal Theory
Yerkes-Dodson law – performance is best under conditions of moderate arousal rather than either low or high arousal
overlearning – learning to perform a task so well that it becomes automatic
DISCUSSION: How can overlearning help your academic performance in AP Psychology and other courses? When might it be really important to have overlearning?
DISCUSSION: We choose to engage in behaviors that increase a drive and take us away from homeostasis (skipping meals, taking a challenging course)

5. Biology of Hunger Gastric signals Blood chemistry
Walter Cannon and A.L. Washburn
RESEARCH: connection b/w stomach contractions and hunger
cholecystokinin (CCK) – hormone that starts the digestion of food , travels to the brain through the bloodstream, and signals us to stop eating
Blood chemistry
glucose (blood sugar)
insulin (hormone, helps control blood sugar levels)
leptin (chemical substance released by fat cells, decreases food intake and increases energy expenditure or metabolism)
ob mice – obsese mice, genetic mutation, cannot produce leptin

6. Hunger and the Brain Hypothalamus Neurotransmitters
lateral hypothalamus
initiation of hunger and eating
damage: starving animal won’t eat
ventromedial hypothalamus
cessation of hunger and eating
damage: eating too much and quick onset of obesity
Neurotransmitters

7. Obesity and Eating Behavior
Obesity is widespread
60% of Americans are overweight
33% of Americans are obese
Biology of Overeating
genetics
set point – weight maintained when the individual makes no effort to gain or lose weight
fat (adipose) cells
normal weight: billion
obese person: up to 100 billion
Psychological Factors
In the past, the focus was on
emotional state
external food cues
Current research is focusing on
time and place cues
sugar and fat content

8. Disordered Eating: Anorexia Nervosa
relentless pursuit of thinness through starvation
more common among females, non-Latino, and middle- and upper- classes
associated with high-achieving perfectionists
associated with obsessive thinking about with and compulsive exercise
typically begins in teenage years
main characteristics
less than 85% of normal weight
unsupported fear of gaining weight
distorted body image
amenorrhea
medical dangers and mortality
highest mortality rate of any psychological disorder – 5.6% die within 10 years of diagnosis
growth of tine hair all over the body, thinning of bones and hair, severe constipation, low blood pressure

9. Disordered Eating: Bulimia Nervosa
binge-and-purge
vomiting, laxatives
more common among females (1-4 percent)
typically in a person of a normal weight
difficult to detect – why?
preoccupied with food
fearful, depressed, anxious, shame
low self-efficacy (high standards, low confidence)
associated with impulsivity, negative emotions and childhood obsessive-compulsive disorder
medical dangers

10. Disordered Eating: Causes
Causes of Anorexia and Bulimia
sociocultural
media images
family interactions
TRAILER: MissRepresentation
biological
genetics
serotonin regulation
neurological effects of dieting, binging, purging

11. Disordered Eating: Binge Eating Disorder
recurrent episodes of compulsively eating large amounts of food
despite not being hungry, eat quickly to point of discomfort
lack of control over eating
2-5% of Americans will experience at some point in life
8% of the obese have BED
causes include biological factors (genetics, dopamine, stress)

12. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
sequence of needs
basic needs must be met before higher needs can be satisfied
self-actualization (motivation to develop to our fullest potential)

13. Self-Determination Theory
self-determination theory – Edward Deci and Richard Ryan’s theory asserting that all humans have three basic, innate organismic (psychological needs are innate and exist in every person) needs
Three Basic Organismic Needs:
competence
self-efficacy, mastery, expectations for success
self-efficacy – belief that you have the competence to accomplish a given goal or task
mastery – the sense that you can gain skills and overcome obstacles
relatedness
warm relations with others, need to belong
even unintentional exclusion can cause stress and poor life choices
autonomy
independence and self-reliance
Kennon Sheldon (2005) – older Americans feel more autonomous when engaging in same behaviors (voting, etc.)

14. Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation
Intrinsic Motivation
motivation based on internal factors
organismic needs (competence, relatedness, and autonomy) + enjoyability (curiosity, challenge and fun)
key to achievement
Extrinsic Motivation
motivation that involves external incentives
incentives (rewards, punishments)
associated with lowered well-being and health
both individualist and collectivist cultures support self-determination theory

15. A SHORT Time to Ponder
CRITICAL CONTROVERSY: Does extrinsic motivation undermine intrinsic motivation? (p. 327)
What are some instances in your own life in which your intrinsic motivation was reduced by external rewards? What are some instances in which your intrinsic motivation was increased by external rewards?
What other factors might determine whether extrinsic motivation influences intrinsic motivation?

16. Self-Regulation
self-regulation - the process by which an organism controls behavior in order to pursue important objectives
feedback = important component (example: daily mood)
cannot be happy all the time – require negative feedback
goals, a.k.a. projects, best possible selves, life tasks, personal strivings
purpose – an intention to accomplish a goal that is meaningful to oneself and t o contribute something to the world
Goal Setting
specific
moderately challenging
long term purpose
short term accomplishment
high-achieving individuals: monitor learning and systematically evaluate their progress toward their goals

17. A SHORT Activity
Create some goals, and write them in your spiral. Be sure to use the techniques for successful goal-setting! It might be nice if they contained some “purpose” as well. 
purpose – an intention to accomplish a goal that is meaningful to oneself and to contribute something to the world
goal setting
specific
moderately challenging
long term purpose
short term accomplishment

18. INTERSECTION: Resisting Temptation p. 328
Delay of Gratification
Walter Mischel – kids and cookies
putting off pleasurable experience knowing there will be future payoff
distraction helps us resist temptation
DISCUSSION: What are some of the “cookies” in your life? How do you avoid being sidetracked by temptation?

19. Emotion
emotion - a feeling, or affect, that can involve physiological arousal (such as a fast heartbeat), conscious experience (thinking about being in love with someone), and behavioral expression (a smile or a grimace)
physiological arousal
Autonomic Nervous System
Sympathetic Nervous System → arouses
Parasympathetic Nervous System → calms

20. Nervous System: Divisions
The Two Main Divisions of the Nervous System:
1. Central Nervous System (CNS)
brain and spinal cord
2. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
somatic nervous system – sensory nerves
muscular activity
autonomic nervous system – internal organs
sympathetic nervous system – arouses
parasympathetic nervous system – calms
Nervous System: Divisions

21. Autonomic Nervous System

22. A SHORT Assignment
Look back at the table on the previous slide. Write a short narrative that includes as much of the vocabulary as possible, referencing specifically if it relates to the parasympathetic or sympathetic nervous system.

23. Measuring Arousal
skin conductance level (SCL) – a rise in the skin’s electrical conductivity when sweat gland activity increases
sweaty palms  conduct electricity better
polygraph – a machine, commonly called a lie detector, that monitors changes in the body used to try to determine whether someone is lying
heart rate, breathing, SCL
neutral v. target questions
results do not reliably detect deception
Employee Polygraph Protection Act (1988)
fMRI may better detect deception

24. Theories of Emotion
James-Lange Theory - the theory that emotion results from physiological states triggered by stimuli in the environment
William James and Carl Lange (“Long-uh”)
physiological arousal  emotion
perception of physiological changes
bull example: you do not run away because you are afraid—you are afraid because you are running way
Cannon-Bard Theory
Walter Cannon (1927) Philip Bard (1934) – objected to James-Lange Theory
bull example: first, it stimulates your autonomic nervous system to produce physiological changes in emotion (increased heart rate; rapid breathing)… second, it sends messages to your cerebral cortex, where the experience of emotion is perceived
emotional and physiological reactions occur simultaneously

25. Theories of Emotion

26. Emotion and the Brain Limbic System: Amygdala thalamus  amygdala
fear system: two pathways
thalamus  amygdala
 sensory cortex 
persistence of emotional memories
Cerebral Hemispheres
left hemisphere: approach-related emotions
right hemisphere: withdrawal-related emotions

27. Brain Pathways of Fear (Fig. 10.6)
direct pathway (broken arrow) – conveys information rapidly from the thalamus to the amygdala
indirect pathway (solid arrows) – transmits information more slowly from the thalamus to the sensory cortex (here the visual cortex) and then to the amygdala
Brain Pathways of Fear (Fig. 10.6)
the amygdala hardly ever forgets (fears and anxieties = long-term)
the amygdala influences cerebral cortex (more than other direction) … thus, it is hard to control our emotions
left prefrontal activation associated with being happier than right prefrontal activation

28. Emotion: Cognitive Factors
Two-Factor Theory (Schachter/Singer)
physiological arousal
cognitive labeling
arousal  interpret external cues  label emotion
emotions are determined by two factors: physiological arousal and cognitive labeling

29. Two-Factor Theory of Emotion
Research, Schachter and Singer (1962):
injected with epinephrine (heightens arousal)
associate behavior with others emotions
Two-Factor Theory of Emotion

30. Donald Dutton and Arthur Aron (1974)
Capilano River Bridge Experiment: Misinterpreted Arousal Intensifies Emotional Experiences (Fig. 10.8, p. 334)

31. A SHORT Time to Ponder
Do you think you can choose to interpret arousal in more productive and positive ways? Explain.

32. Emotion: Factors
Emotion is a feeling, or affect, that can involve physiological arousal, conscious experience, and behavioral expression.
The Primacy Debate: Cognition or Emotion
Which comes first - feeling or thinking?
Lazarus: appraisal determines feelings (thinking is primary)
Zajonc: preferences need no inferences (emotions are primary)
Behavioral Factors
verbal or nonverbal
nonverbal - facial expression, posture, gestures
Lazarus (1991)
Zajonc (1984)

33. A SHORT Time to Ponder?
Which whom do you agree on the primacy debate, Lazarus or Zajonc?
Lazarus = thinking
Zajonc = emotion

34. Emotion: Behavioral Factors
Identifying Facial Expressions
happiness, anger, sadness, surprise, disgust, fear
Facial Feedback Hypothesis
facial expression can influence emotions
supports the James-Lange theory of emotions

35. Identifying Emotions Can you correctly identify the emotions?
ANSWERS: happiness, anger, sadness, surprise, disgust, fear

36. Emotion: Sociocultural Factors
Comparative Perspectives
expression of emotions similar across cultures
display rules – sociocultural standards that determine when, where, and how emotions should be expressed
anger… ok, not ok to express?
no universal gestures
Computer Communication
Scott Fahlman (1982) – emoticons
compensation for loss of other expressive channels (tone, facial expression, etc.)
vary between cultures
Gender Influences
stereotypes
Men and Women = experience emotions on a similar level
Women: more accurate at identifying facial expressions; experience emotions for a longer period of time

37. Classifying Emotions Valence (direction) Arousal Level (degree)
positive v. negative affect
Arousal Level (degree)
active and engaged v. passive and calm
Positive Negative
High Ecstasy Fury
Low Contentment Boredom

38. Circumplex Model of Mood Psychological Inquiry, p. 339
x-axis: Valence
y-axis: Arousal

39. Adaptive Function of Emotions
Negative Emotions
take immediate corrective action
Positive Emotions
broaden-and-build model – Fredrickson’s model of positive emotion, stating that the function of positive emotions lies in their effects on an individual’s attention and ability to build resources
broadens attention focus
more likely to think outside-the-box, to exercise, to make friends, to “branch out”
encourages “approach” behavior
Resilience
positive outlook
emotional wisdom
better response to stress

40. Pursuit of Happiness Biological Factors Obstacles
genetics
set point
Obstacles
hedonic treadmill -
direct pursuit can backfire
Happiness Activities & Goal Striving
altruism, physical activity, positive self-reflection
personally meaningful goal investment

41. A SHORT Time to Ponder
Do you lack resources or resourcefulness?

42. Chapter Summary
Describe the evolutionary, drive reduction, and optimum arousal theories of motivation.
Explain the physiological basis of hunger and the nature of eating behavior.
Distinguish the competing theories of emotion.
Characterize the range of factors affecting emotions.
Classify emotions.

43. Chapter Summary Theories of Motivation Hunger
drive reduction and optimum arousal theories
Hunger
biological and psychological influences
obesity and eating disorders
Non-Biological Theories of Motivation
Maslow’s hierarchy
self-determination and self regulation
intrinsic v. extrinsic motivations

44. Chapter Summary Emotion Pursuit of Happiness physiological arousal
James-Lange, Cannon-Bard, and two-factor theory
nonverbal expression
sociocultural factors
classifying emotion
Pursuit of Happiness