11—Emotional Development

11—Emotional Development
Exploring Emotion Development of Emotion Emotional Problems, Stress, and Coping Temperament Attachment Summary

Exploring Emotion Defining Emotion Emotion
Feeling, or affect, that can involve physiological arousal, conscious experience, and behavioral expression

Exploring Emotion Defining Emotion Positive affectivity (PA)
The range of positive emotions, from high energy, enthusiasm, and excitement to being calm, quiet, and withdrawn. Negative affectivity (NA) The range of negatively tone emotions, such as anxiety, anger, guilt, and sadness.

Exploring Emotion Functionalism in Emotion Relational Emotion
In the functionalist view, emotions derive their meaning from the individual’s goals. Relational Emotion In our description of the functionalist view of emotion, we underscored the links between emotion, relationships, and development. Parent-Child Relationships Peer Relationships

Exploring Emotion Peer Relationships
Emotions play a strong role in whether a child’s peer relationships are successful or not. Emotional regulation is an important aspect of getting along with peers.

Exploring Emotion Regulation of Emotion
With increasing age in infancy and early childhood, regulation of emotion shifts gradually from external sources in the world to self-initiated, internal resources. Cognitive strategies for regulating emotions increase with age. With greater maturity, children develop greater capacity to modulate their emotional arousal.

Exploring Emotion Regulation of Emotion
With age, individuals become more adept at selecting and managing situations and relationships in ways that minimize negative emotion. With age, children become more capable of selecting effective ways to cope with stress.

Exploring Emotion Emotional Competence
Focuses on the adaptive nature of emotional experience. As children acquire these emotional competence skills in a variety of contexts, they are more likely to effectively manage their emotions.

Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 1
Discuss basic aspects of emotion Review How is emotion defined? What characterizes functionalism in emotion? How is emotion relational? What are some developmental changes in the regulation of emotion? What constitutes emotional competence?

Think back to your childhood and adolescent years. You won’t be able to remember you emotional experiences in infancy, but you should be able to remember some of them from your later childhood and adolescent years. How effective were you in regulating your emotions? Give some examples. Hs your ability to regulate your emotions changed as you have grown older or is it similar to your ability in childhood and adolescence? Explain.

Development of Emotion
Infancy Early Developmental Changes in Emotion Primary emotions—Emotions that are present in humans and other animals, including surprise, interest, joy, anger, sadness, fear, and disgust; appear in first six to eight months of life.

Infancy Early Developmental Changes in Emotion Self-conscious emotions—Emotions that require cognition, especially consciousness, including empathy, jealousy, embarrassment, pride, shame, and guilt; appear for the first time from the middle of the second year through the middle of the third year of life.

The first appearance of Different Emotions Refer to Figure 11.1

Crying Crying is the most important mechanism newborns have for communicating with their world. Basic cry A rhythmic pattern usually consisting of a cry, a briefer silence, a shorter inspiratory whistle that is higher pitched than the main cry, and then a brief rest before the next cry.

Crying Anger cry A cry similar to the basic cry, with more excess air forced through the vocal chords (associated with exasperation or rage). Pain cry A sudden appearance of loud crying without preliminary moaning and long initial cry followed by an extended period of breath holding

Smiling Reflexive smile A smile that does not occur in response to external stimuli. It appears during the month after birth, usually during irregular patterns of sleep, not when the infant is in an alert state. Social smile A smile in response to an external stimulus, which, early in development, typically is in response to a face.

Fear Stranger anxiety An infant’s fear and wariness of strangers; it tends to appear in the second half of the first year of life. Separation protest An infant’s distress at being separated from his her caregiver.

Separation Protest in Four Cultures Refer to Figure 11.2

Social Referencing “Reading” emotional cues in others to help determine how to act in a particular situation. Emotional Regulation and Coping Emotional regulation consists of effectively managing arousal to adapt and reach a goal.

Early Childhood The most important changes in emotional development in early childhood include an increased ability to talk about emotion and an increase understanding of emotion (Kuebli, 1994). From 5 to 10 years, children show an increased ability to reflect on emotions.

Middle and Late Childhood Important developmental changes in emotions during the middle and late childhood years (Keubli, 1994; Wintre & Vallance, 1994). An increased ability to understand such complex emotions as pride and shame (Kuebli, 1994). Increased understanding that more than one emotion can be experienced in a particular situation.

Middle and Late Childhood (continued) Marked improvements in the ability to suppress or conceal negative reactions. The use of self-initiated strategies for redirecting feelings.

Adolescence Early adolescence is a time when emotional highs and lows increase (Galambos & Costigan, 2003; Rosenblum & Lewis, 2003). Individuals are more likely to become aware of their emotional cycles, which may improve their ability to cope with a situation.

Some Characteristics of Young Children’s Language for Talking About Refer to Figure 11.3

Self-Reported Extremes of Emotions by Adolescents, Mothers, and Fathers Using the Experience Sampling Method Refer to Figure 11.4

Describe the development of emotion Review How does emotion develop in infancy? What characterizes emotional development in early childhood? What changes take place in emotion during middle and late childhood? How does emotion change in adolescence?

The mother and father of an 8-month-old baby are having difficulty getting sleep at night because the baby wakes up in the middle of the night crying. What would you recommend to them regarding how they should deal with this situation?

Emotional Problems, Stress, and Coping
Depression Depression is a mood disorder in which the individual is unhappy, demoralized, self-derogatory, and bored. Depression in Childhood Learned helplessness Seligman’s theory of depression—that it occurs when individuals are exposed to negative experiences, especially prolonged stress or pain, over which they have no control.

Depression in Adolescence Pervasive symptoms of depression may lead adolescents to wear black clothes, write poetry with morbid themes, or be preoccupied with music that has depressive themes.

Suicide Suicide behavior is rare in childhood but escalates in early adolescence. Suicide is the third leading cause of death today among adolescents 13 through 19 years of age in the United States (National Center for Health Statistics, 2000).

The response of individuals to the circumstances and events (called stressors) that threaten them and tax their coping abilities.

Cognitive Factors Cognitive appraisal Lazarus’ term for children’s interpretations of events in their lives as harmful, threatening, or challenging, and their determination of whether they have the resources to effectively cope with the event.

Cognitive Factors Primary appraisal Lazarus’ concept that individuals interpret whether an event involves harm or loss that already has occurred, a threat that involves some future danger, or a challenge to be overcome.

Cognitive Factors Secondary appraisal Lazarus’ concept that individuals evaluate their resources and determine how effectively they can cope with an event. Life Events and Daily Hassles Psychologists have emphasized that life’s daily experiences as well as life’s major events may be the culprits in stress (Crnic, 1996).

Optimistic and Pessimistic Children’s Interpretations of Bad and Good Events Refer to Figure 11.5

Sociocultural Factors Sociocultural factors involved in stress include acculturative stress and poverty. Acculturation—Cultural change that results from continuous, firsthand contact between two distinctive cultural groups. Acculturative stress is the negative consequence of acculturation.

Coping with Stress Children who have a number of coping techniques have the best chance of adapting and functioning competently in the face of stress. As children get older, they are able to more accurately appraise a stressful situation and determine how much control they have over it.

Coping with Death Though children vary somewhat in the age at which they begin to understand death, the limitations of preoperational thought make it difficult for a child to comprehend death before the age of 7 or 8.

Summarize the nature of depression, suicide, stress, and coping Review What causes depression in childhood and adolescence? Way do adolescents attempt and commit suicide? What is the nature of stress and coping in children?

What advice would you give to a parent whose child is experiencing a great deal of stress and having difficulty coping?

Temperament Defining and Classifying Temperament Temperament
An individual’s behavioral style and characteristic way of emotional response

Temperament Defining and Classifying Temperament Easy Child
A child who is generally in a positive mood, who quickly establishes regular routines in infancy, and who adapts easily to new experiences.

Temperament Defining and Classifying Temperament Difficult child
A child who tends to react negatively and cry frequently, who engages in irregular daily routines, and who is slow to accept change. Slow-to-warm-up child A child who has a low activity level, is somewhat negative, and displays a low intensity of mood

Temperament Defining and Classifying Temperament
The general classification of temperament now focuses more on: Positive affect and approach. Negative affectivity. Effortful control (self regulation)

Temperament Goodness of Fit
Refers to the match between a child’s temperament and the environmental demands the child must cope with.

Temperament Developmental Connections and Contexts
Activity level is an important dimension of temperament. Studies reveal some continuity between certain aspects of temperament in childhood and adjustment in early adulthood.

Temperament Temperament in Childhood, Personality in Adulthood, and Intervening Contexts Refer to Figure 11.6

Temperament Gender, Culture, and Temperament
Parents might react differently to a child’s temperament depending on whether the child is a boy or a girl and on the culture in which they live.

Temperament Parenting and the Child’s Temperament
Attention to and respect for individuality. Structuring the child’s environment. The “difficult” child and packaged parenting programs

Characterize temperament Review How can temperament be defined and classified? What does “Goodness of fit” mean? What are some developmental connections and contextual influences on temperament? How might gender and culture be linked to temperament?

Consider your own temperament. We described a number of different temperament categories. Which one best describes your temperament? Has your temperament changed as your have gotten older, or is it about the same as when you were a child or an adolescent? If your temperament has changed, what factors contributed to the changes?

Attachment What Is Attachment?
A close emotional bond between an infant and a caregiver. Attachment develops in a series of phases, moving from a baby’s general preference for human beings to a partnership with primary caregivers.

Attachment Contact Time with Wire and Cloth Surrogate Mothers
Refer to Figure 11.7

Attachment Individual Differences Secure attachment
The infant uses a caregiver as a secure base from which to explore the environment. Ainsworth believes that secure attachment in the first year of life provides an important foundation for psychological development later in life.

Attachment Individual Differences Strange Situation
An observational measure of infant attachment that requires the infant to move through a series of introductions, separations, and reunions with the caregiver and an adult stranger in a prescribed order.

Attachment Individual Differences Insecure avoidant babies
Babies that show insecurity by avoiding the caregiver. Insecure resistant babies Babies that might cling to the caregiver, then resist her by fighting against the closeness, perhaps by kicking or pushing away.

Attachment Individual Differences Insecure disorganized babies
Babies that show insecurity by being disorganized and disoriented.

Attachment The Ainsworth Strange Situation Refer to Figure 11.8

Attachment Caregiving Styles and Attachment Classification
Securely attached babies have caregivers who are sensitive to their signals and are consistently available to respond to their infants’ needs (Gao, Elliott, & Waters, 1999; Main, 2000).

Attachment Attachment, Temperament, and the Wider Social World
Some developmentalists believe that too much emphasis is placed on the importance of the attachment bond. Another criticism of attachment theory is that it ignores the diversity of socializing agents and contexts that exists in the infant’s world.

Attachment Cross-Cultural Comparison of Attachment
Refer to Figure 11.9

Attachment Fathers as Caregivers of Infants
Observations of fathers and their infants suggest that fathers have the ability to act sensitively and responsively with their infants (Parke, 1995, 2000, 2001).

Attachment Child Care Patterns of use Quality of care
Amount of child care Family and parenting influences

Attachment What Is High-Quality Child Care? Refer to Figure 11.10

Review and Reflect; Learning Goal 5
Explain attachment and its development Review What is attachment? What are some individual variations in attachment? How are caregiving styles related to attachment classifications? What are some issues related to attachment? How do fathers fare as caregivers of infants? How does child care affect children?

Review and Reflect; Learning Goal 5
Imaging that a friend of yours is getting ready to put her baby in child care. What advice would you give to her? Do you think she should stay at home with the baby? Why or why not? What type of child care would you recommend?

Summary Emotion can be defined as feeling, or affect, that can involve physiological arousal, conscious experience, and behavioral expression. The functionalist view of emotion states that emotions are linked to contexts, often interpersonal ones.

Summary The relation aspects of emotion involve parent-child relationships and peer relations. The ability to regulate emotions is increasingly recognizes as a key aspect of development. Becoming emotionally competent involves developing a number of skills, such as becoming aware of one’s emotions.

Summary Two broad types of emotions are primary emotions (surprise, interest, joy, anger, sadness, fear, and disgust, which appear in the first six to eight months of life) and self-conscious emotions (empathy, jealousy, and embarrassment, which appear at about 1 1/2 years of age).

Summary Preschoolers become more adept at talking about their own and others’ emotions. In middle and late childhood, children increasingly understand such complex emotions as pride and shame and that more than one emotion can be expressed in a particular situation.

Summary Early adolescence is a time when emotional highs and lows increase. Depression more likely to occur in adolescence than in childhood and in girls more than in boys. Suicide is the third leading cause of death in U.S. 13- to 19-year-olds.

Summary Lazarus believes that children’s stress depends on how they cognitively appraise and interpret events. Seligman argues that an important aspect of coping with stress is whether the child is optimistic or pessimistic.

Summary Temperament is an individual’s behavioral style and characteristic way of emotionally responding. Goodness of fit refers to the match between a child’s temperament and the environmental demands the child must cope with.

Summary Activity level in early childhood is linked with being an outgoing young adult. In one study, mothers were more responsive to the cries of irritable girls than those of irritable boys.

Summary Although research evidence is sketchy, some general recommendations are that caregivers should (1) be sensitive to the individual characteristics of the child, (2) be flexible in responding to these characteristics, and (3) avoid negative labeling of the child.

Summary Attachment is a close emotional bond between the infant and caregiver. Securely attached babies use the caregiver, usually the mother, as a secure base from which to explore the environment. Caregivers of secure babies are sensitive to the babies’ signals and are consistently available to meet their needs.

Summary Some critics argue that attachment theorists have not given adequate attention to genetics and temperament. Fathers have increased their interaction with children, but they still lag far behind mothers, even when mothers are employed. Child care has become a basic need of the American family.

11—Emotional Development

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