1. PowerPoint Presentation
Publisher The Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. Tinley Park, Illinois 1

2. Wall and Ceiling Construction
Chapter 14
Wall and Ceiling Construction 2

3. Chapter 14 Overview Introduction Frame Wall Construction Steel Framing
General Framing Considerations
Masonry Wall Construction
Brick Names and Sizes
Traditional Three-Coat Stucco 3

4. Learning Objectives List the members of a typical frame wall.
Explain methods of frame wall construction.
Explain information shown on a ceiling joist span data chart.
Sketch the various types of exterior walls used in residential construction.
(continued) 4

5. Learning Objectives
Explain the applications, advantages, and disadvantages of steel framing in residential construction.
Identify the basic processes used to produce a quality, three-coat stucco finish. 5

6. Introduction
Residential wall construction is generally one of three types:
Frame construction.
Masonry construction.
Combination frame and masonry.
Wall panels may be constructed on site or prefabricated at another location. 6

7. Frame Wall Construction
Frame wall construction involves the proper arrangement of wall framing members.
Typical framing members include:
Sole plate, top plates, studs, and bracing.
Plates and studs are usually 2" x 4" lumber.
Headers or lintels are typically larger stock.
Bracing may be 1" x 4" stock, metal strap, or plywood sheathing. 7

8. Frame Wall Construction
Computer-generated framing representation. 8
(ART, Inc.)

9. Frame Wall Construction
Typical framed corner. 9

10. Frame Wall Construction
Framing lumber must:
Have good stiffness and nail-holding properties.
Be free from warp and easy to work.
Species that meet these criteria include:
Douglas fir, southern yellow pine, hemlock, spruce, and larch.
Lumber grade commonly used is No. 2.
Moisture content should be 15% to 19%. 10

11. Frame Wall Construction
A wall is usually constructed on the subfloor since it provides a large, flat work surface.
An entire wall panel may be built as a unit or may be built in sections.
Exterior frame walls may be flush with the outside of the foundation wall or moved 1/2" to 3/4" inside for sheathing. 11

12. Exterior Wall Placement12

13. Specialized CADD Software
Specialized CADD software is available to aid in the design of frame walls.
Automatic framing plans and material lists are possible with some software packages.
However, a thorough understanding of frame wall construction is necessary. 13

14. Bottom Plates Construction of a frame wall begins with the sole plate.
Stud spacing is marked off on the sole plate.
Sole plate acts as an anchor for the wall panels. 14

15. Wall Studs Wall studs are cut to length and nailed to the sole plate.
Usual length of the studs is 7'-0".
A plate is nailed to the top of the studs.
A second plate is added after the wall is in place.
Distance from the top of the subfloor to the bottom of the ceiling joists is usually 8'-1 1/2", providing an 8' wall height. 15

16. Headers Over Openings
Openings for doors and windows are framed as the studs are put into place.
Each wall opening requires a header to support the weight above the opening in a frame wall.
Headers are made with solid blocking or cripple construction. 16

17. Solid Blocking
In solid blocking, the header size is increased to completely fill the space from the top of the rough opening to the top plate. 17

18. Solid Blocking Headers
Solid blocking headers are made from two 2" x 12" pieces of dimensional lumber with 1/2" plywood between them to form a 3-1/2" thick header.
Trimmers are placed inside the opening to support the header.
Construction time is reduced, but shrinkage is increased. 18

19. Cripple Construction for Headers
Headers with cripple construction uses cripple studs to fill the space between the header and top plate.
Cripple studs are short studs.
Trimmers are placed inside the opening to support the header. 19

20. Cripple Construction for Headers20

21. Headers Header size will vary with the span and load requirements.
The length of a header is equal to the width of the rough opening plus the thickness of two trimmers.
Trussed headers are required for openings wider than 8'-0" or where heavy loads are expected. 21

22. Headers `
The rough opening for a window is the area between the trimmers and the rough sill and header. 22

23. Header Sizes and Spans 23

24. Trussed Headers
Trussed headers increase the supporting strength and possible span. 24

25. Rough Openings in Frame Walls
Rough openings for windows and doors are dimensioned to the center of the opening in a frame wall.
Specific dimensions are provided by the window and door schedule.
Width is listed first and the height second.
Rough opening height is usually 6'-10". 25

26. Exterior Corners and Bracing
There are several methods of framing exterior corner walls
The corner must provide a nailing edge for interior wall material
The corner must provide adequate support for the structure
(continued) 26

27. Exterior Corners and Bracing
Corner framing. 27

28. Exterior Corners and Bracing
Corner bracing is required by most codes.
Two methods of bracing are commonly used:
Diagonal corner bracing using 1" x 4" lumber or metal straps.
Corner bracing using a sheet of 1/2" plywood or similar panel. 28

29. Exterior Corners and Bracing
Corner bracing. 29

30. Interior Framed Walls
Interior framed walls are constructed in the same way as exterior walls.
They have sole plates, studs, and double top plates.
Interior walls are securely fastened to the walls they intersect.
A nailing edge must be provided for drywall, paneling, etc. 30

31. Interior Framed Walls
Framing intersecting walls. 31

32. Steel Framing
Steel framing is gaining in popularity for several reasons.
Quality wood is scarce and expensive.
Steel framing has performed well in commercial construction.
Steel framing is made from a recyclable material.
Price of steel has been relatively stable. 32

33. Steel Framing
Steel framing is used on this large structure. 33

34. Steel Framing Advantages for the builder include:
Generally fewer framing members required.
Steel will not rot, shrink, swell, split, or burn.
Steel is consistent in quality and pricing.
Standard precut shapes are available.
Lengths up to 40' are possible.
Steel members weigh less than wood.
Framing members have prepunched holes for piping and electrical wiring.
Accommodates typical finishing materials. 34

35. Steel Framing Advantages for the homeowner include:
Does not require treatment for termites.
Free of chemicals needed to treat wood.
Provides increased design flexibility.
Resists fire, earthquake, and hurricanes.
Lower insurance premium.
Remodeling is easier because nonbearing walls can be easily removed, altered, and relocated. 35

36. Steel Framing Environmental benefits include:
All steel products are recyclable without degradation or loss of properties.
The steel industry is the single largest recycler in North America.
Steel is the easiest and most economical material to remove from the solid waste stream.
The amount of energy required to produce a ton of steel is continually being reduced. 36

37. Steel Framing Disadvantages include:
Lack of familiarity with the product.
Education about steel framing systems’ methods and capabilities is needed.
Engineering analysis is required.
Thermal performance of steel frame structures remains unanswered.
Steel framing members are flimsy and hard to work with and eye protection is absolutely required. 37

38. Steel Framing Components
The structural C or C-section is the most used shape for framing.
Standard dimensions are nearly identical to those of dimensional lumber.
Flange widths are generally 1-1/2" and webs range from 2" to 12".
Thickness ranges from 12 to 22 gauge .
Load-bearing applications use 16 to 20 gauge steel C-sections. 38

39. Steel Framing Components
Light gauge steel framing. 39

40. Steel Framing Components
The C-section is available unpunched or prepunched in lengths from 8' to 16'.
Track or channel members are used for rim joists, top and bottom plates, and blocking.
Track is available in lengths up to 10'.
Hot-rolled channel is used for furring.
All members are fastened with screws. 40

41. Steel Framing Application
Base of wall at slab on grade. 41

42. Steel Wall and Roof Systems
Construction elements of a framed house include three main assemblies:
Floors, walls, and roofs.
Two types of steel studs are used for walls:
Structural C for load-bearing walls.
Drywall studs for nonbearing partitions. 42

43. Steel Wall and Roof Systems
C studs range in size from 2-1/2" to 8" and thickness from .034" to .071".
Drywall studs range from 1-5/8" to 6" and thickness from .018" to .034".
The broad range of steel framing members available allows this system to be used in virtually any roof system. 43

44. Steel Wall and Roof Systems
Steel framed roof section. 44

45. Ceiling Construction
Ceiling joists may be put in place after exterior and interior walls are finished.
Joists are generally positioned in the same direction as the rafters.
Ceiling joist size will depend on load, span, wood species, joist spacing, etc.
Check your local code. 45

46. Ceiling Construction See Figure 14-16 in the text for more span data.46

47. Ceiling Construction
Basic construction of the ceiling is similar to floor construction, except:
A header is not required around the perimeter.
Smaller size lumber is used.
Long spans may require support from a bearing wall partition or beam. 47

48. Ceiling Construction
Two methods of supporting ceiling joists with a built-up beam. 48

49. Ceiling Construction
The upper corner of a ceiling joist often interferes with the roof slope.
The corner is usually cut to match the slope. 49

50. General Framing Considerations
An access hole must be provided in the ceiling to allow entry into the attic.
Framing around ceiling openings is the same as for openings in the floor.
Double headers are used for large holes.
Special framing is required for openings for heating ducts, wall backing for various fixtures, and extra support for the bathtub. 50

51. Special Framing Details51

52. Special Framing Details
The framing for a bay window presents special problems. 52

53. Masonry Wall Construction
A masonry wall may be solid or cavity-type wall.
Masonry walls may be brick, concrete block, stone, clay tile, terra cotta, or combination of these materials.
Masonry walls for residential construction are usually 8" thick.
Concrete block walls are also called cavity walls. 53

54. Masonry Wall Construction
A solid masonry wall using a header course to bond the two thicknesses together. 54

55. Masonry Wall Construction
A cavity wall that uses corrugated metal wall ties to bond the two thicknesses together.
Wall tie spacing should be 16" vertically and 32" horizontally. 55

56. Masonry Wall Construction
Furring strips are required on the inside of the wall for drywall, plaster, or paneling.
Furring strips are usually 2" x 2" or 1" x 3" lumber. 56

57. Firecuts
A firecut is used when floor joists are placed directly into solid masonry walls.
Each joist end is cut at an angle to prevent wall damage in case of fire. 57

58. Flashing and Termite Shields
Flashing and termite shields should be used at the base of solid masonry or brick veneer walls.
Flashing prevents moisture from entering the structure. 58

59. Attaching Top Plates
The top plate for the roof must be anchored securely to the solid masonry wall.
Anchor bolts are used to secure the plate. 59

60. Stonework Stonework is often used to provide a decorative look.
Stonework is commonly classified as ashlar or rubble.
Ashlar stonework uses dressed, cut, or squared stones.
Rubble stonework is made from undressed stones of irregular shapes. 60

61. Stonework
In ashlar stonework, each stone is generally rectangular in shape, a specific size, and fits in an exact place in the pattern. 61

62. Stonework
If the stones are generally flat and rectangular, the result may resemble courses (rows) of stone
This is called coursed rubble. 62

63. Stonework
When rubble stonework has a random pattern, it is called random rubble stonework. 63

64. Stonework
Uncoursed cobweb or polygonal rubble stonework consists of stones that are dressed with relatively straight edges to fit a particular place in the pattern. 64

65. Masonry Veneer
Masonry veneer has just about replaced solid brick and stone walls.
Brick or stone veneer provides the same visual effect as solid brick or stone walls.
Brick or stone veneer is considered to be a facing material and does not support the weight of the building.
A masonry veneer wall will be better insulated and less expensive than a solid masonry wall. 65

66. Masonry Veneer Walls
A brick veneer wall is typically insulated on the frame wall side. 66
(CertainTeed Corporation)

67. Masonry Veneer Wall
Veneer is usually 4" or 6" thick and placed 1" away from the frame wall to provide a dead air space for insulation. 67

68. Brick Names and Sizes
There are two basic types of brick used for wall construction.
Face brick.
Common brick.
Face brick is generally used as a facing material, as it is very uniform in shape.
Common brick is generally used as a backing material, but produces a pleasing rustic appearance when used as a facing material. 68

69. Brick Names and Sizes
The names of brick shapes are standardized, but brick sizes are not as well established. 69

70. Brick Positions
Specific terms are used to describe the position or way in which a brick is laid. 70

71. Types of Mortar Joints 71

72. Popular Brick Bonds 72

73. Traditional Three-Coat Stucco
Stucco refers to exterior applications of wall coating.
There are three stucco systems in general use today.
Traditional three-coat stucco.
Synthetic stucco (one-coat).
Exterior insulation finish system (EIFS).
Each system produces acceptable results. 73

74. Traditional Three-Coat Stucco
The traditional three-coat stucco system has been in use for many years.
Applications are possible in all sections of the US.
Stucco consists of Portland cement, lime, sand, and water.
The material is applied in three coats. 74

75. Traditional Three-Coat Stucco
This house has a traditional three-coat stucco finish. 75

76. Traditional Three-Coat Stucco
Stucco produces a protective shell around the structure.
Stucco may be repaired, if necessary.
The effective life of stucco is 100 years or more, if the structure remains sound.
Problems with stucco applications are generally the result of poor workmanship or improper installation. 76

77. Preparing for Stucco Proper preparation is very important.
A rigid structure is essential.
Three-coat stucco can be applied to most any type of wall system:
Concrete blocks.
Poured concrete.
Brick.
Metal.
Wood frame. 77

78. Preparing for Stucco
This frame construction is ready to receive a moisture-resistant barrier prior to stucco. 78

79. Preparing for Stucco
Stucco being applied directly to concrete block walls. 79

80. Preparing for Stucco
Stucco is not structural and adds no strength to the building structure.
It is a protective shell around the structure.
Stucco cannot resist severe stresses resulting from structural movement.
Cracks in masonry walls will “telescope” through the stucco.
Thin spots in the stucco will crack. 80

81. Preparing for Stucco
Movement in plywood that is not properly spaced and nailed will cause stucco to crack.
Mixing engineered lumber and standard lumber may result in cracking the stucco shell. 81

82. Moisture Barrier and Flashing
Moisture must be prevented from entering behind the stucco shell.
High concentrations of moisture will have a devastating effect on framing members and sheathing.
Moisture barriers and flashing are used to prevent moisture from entering the space behind the stucco. 82

83. Moisture Barrier and Flashing
The weather-resistant barrier can be seen under the lath.
Special attention should be given to joints, openings, and penetrations in the wall. 83

84. Moisture Barrier and Flashing
Moisture barriers are a very important part of the total wall system.
Grade D (10 minute) paper is the minimum for the exterior membrane.
Kraft paper is used as flashing around wall openings and wall penetrations.
Caulk may be used to repair holes or tears in the paper and to seal flashing. 84

85. Lath (Reinforcement)
Lath is used to attach the stucco shell to the structure.
Lath is available as self-furring wire lath or rib lath.
A moisture-proof membrane is usually attached to the lath at the factory.
Furring nails or staples are used to attach lath to the sheathing.
Lath orientation is important. 85

86. Lath (Reinforcement)
The scratch coat is being applied with a trowel to cover the lath. 86

87. Scratch or Foundation Coat
The first stucco layer in the three-coat process, called the scratch coat, embeds the reinforcement in stucco.
It can be applied by hand with a trowel or pump.
The scratch coat is generally 3/8" thick.
When the scratch coat has begun to set, the surface should be roughened. 87

88. Brown Coat
The second coat, called the brown coat, is applied over the scratch coat.
The function of the brown coat is to cover any visible lath, add strength, true the surface, and prepare for the final finish.
The brown coat is leveled with a straight edge to a thickness of 3/8". 88

89. Finish Coat
The final coat, called the finish coat, provides the texture or design to the surface.
It is about 1/8" thick.
The finish coat may be applied by hand or machine.
Color may be added to this finish or the stucco can be painted later.
Stucco should cure for 28 days before painting. 89

90. Finish Coat
The finish has been applied to this structure. 90

91. Finish Coat
This stucco surface has received a primer and finish coat of paint. 91

92. Finish Coat
This close-up shows the detailed texture of the finish coat in a stucco surface. 92

93. Glossary Access Hole. Allows entry into the attic or crawl space.
Ashlar Stonework.
Type of stonework in which dressed, cut, or squared stones are generally rectangular in shape, a specific size, and fit in an exact place in the pattern.
Brick.
A fired clay product. 93

94. Glossary
Brown Coat.
The second stucco layer in the three-coat process. The function of the brown coat is to cover any visible lath, add strength to the shell, true the surface, and provide an appropriate surface for the final decorative finish coat.
Cavity Walls.
A wall built of masonry units arranged to provide a continuous air space 2" to 3" thick. 94

95. Glossary
Common Brick.
Not as uniform in size and color as face brick; may have a lip on one or more edges.
Coursed Rubble.
Type of rubble stonework in which the stones are generally flat and rectangular, and the result may look like courses (rows) of stone.
Cripple Studs.
Studs that are not full length due to a wall opening.
Face Brick.
Usually uniform in size and has sharp corners and lines. 95

96. Glossary
Finish Coat.
The third stucco layer in the three-coat process. This is the decorative layer and is where texture or design patterns are applied to the surface.
Firecut.
A cut at an angle on the ends of floor joists for use with a solid masonry wall; prevents toppling the wall if the house should catch fire.
Furring Strips.
Usually 2" x 2" or 1" x 3" lumber affixed to the wall to provide a nailing surface. 96

97. Glossary
Lath.
Affixed to the wall to provide support and attachment for the layers of stucco and to connect the stucco to the structure.
Masonry Wall.
Constructed entirely of brick, concrete block, stone, clay tile, terra cotta, or a combination of these materials.
Moisture Barrier.
A membrane that protects most of the wall area. 97

98. Glossary Rubble Stonework.
Type of stonework in which the pattern is made up of undressed stones of irregular shapes.
Scratch Coat.
The first stucco layer in the three-coat process; also called the foundation coat. The purpose of the scratch coat is to embed the reinforcement in stucco and provide support for the next coat.
Sole Plate.
The bottom horizontal member of the wall on which studs rest. 98

99. Glossary Solid Blocking.
A method of framing headers in which the header size is increased to completely fill the space from the top of the rough opening to the top plate.
Structural C.
Also called a C-section, it is the predominant shape used in steel framing for floor joists, wall studs, roof rafters, and ceiling joists.
Stucco.
A wall coating applied to the outside of a structure. 99

100. Glossary Three-Coat Stucco System.
The stucco material, which consists of Portland cement, lime, sand, and water, is applied in three coats; the traditional stucco system that has been in use for many years.
Trimmers.
Studs that support the header over an opening in the wall.
Uncoursed Cobweb.
Type of stonework in which the stones are dressed with relatively straight edges to fit a particular place in the pattern; also called polygonal rubble.
100