1. What is Science?

2. Science: [scientia, knowledge]
Knowledge gained through experience…
Accumulated and accepted knowledge that has been systematized and formulated with reference to the discovery of general truths or the operation of general laws
Branch of study that is concerned with observation and classification of facts concerned with the physical world and its phenomena

3. In order to do science we have to make the following assumptions:
There is order to the universe (even if it is chaotic order)
The human mind is capable of comprehending this order
If conditions are the same, the results of any study will be the same

4. ‘God does not play dice with the universe.’

5. Or does She?

6. Science can only state what is, not what should be.
Albert Einstein

7. Which of the following statements can be tested scientifically?
Most of the energy coming from the sun is in the form of visible light.
Unicorns exist.
Shelley wrote beautiful poetry.
The Earth was created over four billion years ago.
Diamond is harder than steel.
Diamonds are more beautiful than rubies.

8. The claim is sometimes made that the scientific method produces closer and closer approximations to "reality."
Is this a scientific statement? Why or why not?

9. The Scientific Method

10. Scientists develop their knowledge by observation and experimentation
Observation is used in two ways: 1. Inductive reasoning - discovering general principles by the careful examination of specific cases. Here the scientist organizes data (facts) into categories and asks what they have in common 2. Deductive reasoning starts with general cases and proceeds to specific cases - it makes relationships clearer and allows predictions to be made

11. Scientific knowledge advances by a method known as "strong inference"
Strong inference works as follows: 1. Make an observation or measurement 2. State an hypothesis 3. Test the hypothesis 4. Publish the results 5. Restate the hypothesis, test again

12. Observation Semmelweis (1856), observed in hospitals in
Vienna, that 5X the number of women died during
childbirth if they were attended by a physician as
compared to being attended by a nurse
(deaths mostly due to “childbed fever”).
One of his colleagues died of childbed fever after
cutting his hand with a scalpel during an
autopsy.
Doctors are often doing autopsies before
attending to childbirths.

13. Observation Hypothesis
(inductive reasoning)
Hypothesis
Semmelweis hypothesized that “cadaveric matter” was transmitted from the autopsy room to the delivery room.

14. Observation Hypothesis Prediction Washing hands would eliminate the
(inductive reasoning)
Hypothesis
(Deductive
Reasoning)
Prediction
Washing hands would eliminate the
cadaveric matter and reduce childbed
fever.
null hypothesis vs.
alternative hypothesis

15. Observation Hypothesis Prediction Experiment Observation
(inductive reasoning)
Hypothesis
(Deductive
Reasoning)
Experimental design
•controls
•dependent variable
(what’s affected)
•independent variable
(what’s the “cause”)
•predicted data (must be
able to differentiate
between null and
alternative hypotheses)
Prediction
Experiment
Observation
correlation ≠ causation

16. correlation ≠ causation

17. (Observation = Prediction?)
(inductive reasoning)
Hypothesis
(Deductive
Reasoning)
Prediction
[Experiment]
Experiment
Observation
Childbed fever deaths absent
when physicians washed
their hands
Analysis
(Observation = Prediction?)

18. Childbed fever deaths absent when physicians washed their hands

19. Semmelweis

20. (Observation = Prediction?)
(inductive reasoning)
Hypothesis
(Deductive
Reasoning)
Prediction
[Experiment]
Experiment
Observation
Analysis
(Observation = Prediction?)
Transmission of
cadaveric matter causes
childbed fever
Conclusion

21. (Observation = Prediction?)
(inductive reasoning)
Hypothesis
(Deductive
Reasoning)
Prediction
What other hypotheses
could be made from the
conclusion?
[Experiment]
Experiment
Observation
Analysis
(Observation = Prediction?)
Conclusion

22. (Observation = Prediction?)
(inductive reasoning)
Hypothesis
(Deductive
Reasoning)
Prediction
What would you
predict from your
hypothesis?
[Experiment]
Experiment
Observation
How would you
test it experimentally?
Analysis
(Observation = Prediction?)
Conclusion

23. Observation Hypothesis Prediction Theory Law Fact [Experiment]
(inductive reasoning)
Hypothesis
(Deductive
Reasoning)
Prediction
Theory
Law
Fact
[Experiment]
Experiment
Observation
Analysis
(Observation = Prediction?)
Generalization
(Deductive Reasoning)
Conclusion

24. Final Hypothesis Supported
Scientific method
is a repetitive
process that leads
to the building
of theories
Initial Observation
reasoning?
New
Hypothesis
Hypothesis
New
Experiment
Experiment
New
Observation
Observation/
Data Analysis
Hypothesis not Supported
Interpretation
Final Hypothesis Supported
Theory

25. Preconceptions can influence scientific method
Identifying
Patterns
Observations
Experimentation
Data
Preconceptions
Hypothesis
Prediction
For childbed fever: “vapors”, spontaneous
generation, women as “weak”

26. Theories in science
build from the
accumulation of multiple
investigative efforts
accumulated
scientific data
formulation of
hypothesis
observation and
experimentation
new data
conclusions 1 2 3
etc
theory
communicable disease

27. Summary
The scientific method is in essence a process of observing natural phenomena which leads to the asking of questions about those phenomena which leads to the offering of explanations that can subsequently be tested

28. Mystery Box
Hand out mystery boxes
Do hypothesis testing exercise