1. Beyond Motivation: Improving Performance through Job and Work Design
Dr. Stan Malos, J.D., Ph.D.
Professor of Management/HRM
San Jose State University
Copyright 2005; 2016 © Stan Malos

2. Performance Overview Performance = Motivation * Ability
Conceptually, performance can be thought of as a multiplicative function of motivation and ability:
Performance = Motivation * Ability
(So, if either motivation or ability are zero, performance is zero!)

3. Motivation
Force that energizes, directs, and sustains human behavior; typically reflected by desire to do the best possible job or exert the most effort to perform desired or assigned tasks.

4. Ability
Overall capacity to perform assigned tasks, typically reflected by, e.g.,
*Mental/physical/emotional resources
*Training/experience levels
*Tools/plant & equipment available

5. Traditional Approaches to Job/Work Design
Work simplification (A)
Job enlargement (M)
Job rotation (M)
Job enrichment (M)
Team-based job designs (A & M)
[A => Ability emphasis; M => Motivational emphasis]

6. Review of Motivation “Theories”:
-Maslow’s Hierarchy
-Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
-Work Adjustment Theory
-Equity Theory
-Expectancy Theory
-Goal Setting Theory*
-Job Characteristics Theory*
There are many motivational theories including the two factor theory, the work adjustment theory, the goal setting theory and the job characteristic theory. Bottom line, people are motivated by different things. Some people are motivated by work that is meaningful to them, work that has a purpose. Others are motivated by freedom in doing a job. Others are motivated when physical activity is required. Still others are motivated my a methodical process, a sense of order in getting the job done. Other people thrive on change while others enjoy work that is either individualistic or social.

7. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Self - Actualization
Self esteem
Things that motivate people are those things that energize, direct and sustain their behavior. In HRM, a person is often motivated by their desire to do the best possible job or to exert the maximum effort to perform assigned tasks. People are also motivated by meeting their physiological needs, safety needs, need for self esteem and self actualization (reaching their full potential).
Safety
Physiological needs

8. Herzberg’s 2-Factor Theory
ID “Motivators” vs. “Hygiene Factors”
Ensure hygiene factors are adequate to enable motivation
Increase motivators to motivate
Duh!

9. Work Adjustment Theory
Motivation and job satisfaction depend on the fit between employee needs and abilities and aspects of the job and organization
Duh!

10. Equity Theory
Aspects of Job Satisfaction [e.g., pay satisfaction] are driven by employee comparisons of outcomes (theirs and others’) to inputs; e.g.,
Rewardsself / Effortsself = Rewardsother / Effortsother
Individuals will adjust the relative “equities”
to maintain the relative equality

11. Expectancy Theory Motivation = Expectancy * Instrumentality * Valence
where
-Expectancy => "If I try, can I perform
at the level necessary to get the promised reward?"
-Instrumentality => "If I perform at the necessary level,
will I in fact get the promised reward?" and
-Valence =>"How much do I value the promised reward?"

12. Goal Setting Theory Hard, Specific Goals that are Accepted, and
Understood
lead to better performance than
-no goals, or
-”do your best”

13. Job Characteristics Theory
The Job Characteristics Theory of Work Motivation
Core Job
Characteristics
Critical
Psychological States
Personal and
Work Outcomes
Job Characteristics Theory
Skill Varieties
Task Identity
Task Significance
Experienced Meaning-
fullness of the Work
High Internal
Work Motivation
High-Quality
Work Performance
Autonomy
Experienced Respon-
sibility for Work
Outcomes
High Satisfaction
With the Work
Knowledge of Results
from Work Activities
Feedback
Low Turnover
and Absenteeism
Strength of Relationships
is Determined by Intensity
of Employee Growth Need

14. Work Design Revisited Work simplification Job enlargement Job rotation
Job enrichment
Team-based job designs

15. Working in Teams…[Compare JCT]
Include members from
different levels of organization
Monitor teams to ensure free exchange
of ideas and creativity
Select members for expertise, diverse perspectives and ability to collaborate
Coordinate with managers to make time
for team meetings

16. Systems-based Approaches
High-involvement work systems
Can be integrated with either team-based approaches, individual-based approaches, or [preferably] both
More when our research presentations address! 

17. Multi-disciplinary Approaches (Campion & Thayer, 1985)
Mechanistic Approach [views the employee as a machine, focusing on efficiency]
Motivational Approach [views the employee as a human being, focusing on satisfaction]
Biological Approach [views the employee as a biological organism, focusing on comfort]
Perceptual-Motor Approach [views the employee as an information processor, focusing on reliability/accuracy/error rate]

18. Tradeoffs among Approaches
How much is “too much” of a good thing?
Are tradeoffs unavoidable or can they be eliminated (or at least managed/minimized)?
Prioritize desired outcomes
Consider individual differences
Consider organizational factors
Consider environmental factors

19. Applications/Examples
See Lengnick-Hall article and invocation of “biological lens” [pp ]
Onward to Research Demo!