1. Introductory Psychology: Memory
AP psychology: Unit 6

2. Objective: 12/7/16
Provided notes & activities SWBAT describe memory in terms of info.processing & distinguish various types of memory.
Agenda:
Do Now
Notes
Activities

3. Do Now:
1. Complete the memory Pre-Test, see how much you know about memory! 2. Read some memory questions and answers

4. Introduction: Fact or Falsehood?
Memory storage is never automatic; it always takes effort
False
When people go around a circle saying their names, their poorest memories are for what was said by the person directly in front of them
True

5. Introduction: Fact or Falsehood?
Memory aids (for example, those that use imagery and devices for organization) are no more useful than simple rehearsal of information
False
Only a few people have any type of photographic memory

6. Introduction: Fact or Falsehood?
Although our capacity for storing information is large, we are still limited in the number of permanent memories we can form
False
When people learn something while intoxicated, they recall it best when intoxicated
True

7. Introduction: Fact or Falsehood?
The hour before sleep is a good time to commit information to memory
True
The confidence of eyewitnesses is an important predictor of their accuracy
False

8. Memory: The Basics
Part one

9. Nickerson & Adams’ Penny Test (1979)

10. Memory: The Basics Memory
An active system that receives information from the senses, puts it into a usable form, organizes it while storing it away, and then retrieves it from storage
Any indication that learning has persisted over time
The mind’s storehouse with all accumulated learning

11. Memory: The Basics Three big questions…
How does information get into memory?
How is information maintained in memory?
How is information pulled back out of memory?

12. Memory: The Basics Entering data through a keyboard
Saving data to a flash drive
Displaying data on a monitor

13. Memory: Encoding
Part TWO
“Get that info in there..!”

14. Memory: Encoding Encoding
The set of mental operations performed on sensory information to convert it into a form that is usable in the brain’s storage systems
Types of Encoding
Automatic Processing
Unconscious processing of incidental information
Space, time, frequency and well-learned information
Example: Flashbulb Memories
Effortful Processing
Conscious processing that requires attention and effort
Example: Rehearsal

15. Memory: Encoding Memory Effects Next-in-Line-Effect Spacing Effect
When we are next in line, we focus on our own performance & often fail to process the last person’s words
Spacing Effect
We retain information better when we rehearse over time
Serial Position Effect
Our tendency to recall best the last and first terms in a list

16. Levels of Processing

17. Memory: Encoding Visual/Structural Encoding The encoding of images
Emphasizes the physical structure of the stimulus
Level of Processing
SHALLOW
Example
Extravagant
“Is the word written in capital letters?”
Boy
“How many letters are in this word?”

18. Memory: Encoding Acoustic/Phonemic Encoding The encoding of sound
Emphasizes what a word sounds like
Level of Processing
INTERMEDIATE
Example
Bait
“Does the word rhyme with weight?”

19. Memory: Encoding Semantic Encoding The encoding of meaning
Emphasizes the meaning of verbal input
Level of Processing
DEEP
Example
Bobcat
Would the word fit in the sentence: “He met a ______ on the street?”

20. Craik & Lockhart (1972)

21. Encoding Enrichment

22. Memory: Encoding Elaboration
Linking a stimulus to other information at the time of encoding
Helps to enhance semantic encoding
Example
You read that phobias are often caused by classical conditioning
You apply this idea to your own fear of spiders
Self-Referent Encoding
People’s recall of information tends to be slanted in favor of material that is relevant to them

23. Memory: Encoding Visual Imagery
The creation of visual images to represent words; can be used to enrich encoding
Facilities memory by providing a second kind of code
Dual-Coding Theory (Paivio, 1986)
Memory is enhanced by forming semantic and visual codes, since either can lead to recall
Concrete v. abstract words
High-high (juggler-dress)
High-low (letter-effort)
Low-high (duty-hotel)
Low-low (quality-necessity)

24. Memory: Encoding Mnemonics
Memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices
Two helpful mnemonic methods
Method of Loci
Matching items with an imagined location
Link Method (“Peg-Word” Method)
Memorize a ditty and then apply to topic
“One is a bun, two is a shoe, three is a tree, four is a door, five is a hive, six is sticks, seven is heaven, eight is a gate, nine is a swine, ten is a hen”

25. Acronyms are another way of chunking information…
Memory: Encoding
Chunking
Organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically
1 – 7 – 7 – 6 – 1 – 4 – 9 – 2 – 1 – 8 – 1 – 2 – 1 – 9 – 4 – 1
Acronyms are another way of chunking information…
HOMES
PEMDAS ROYGBIV

26. Memory: Encoding Hierarchy
Complex information broken down into broad concepts and further subdivided into categories and subcategories
Increases the likelihood of recall and recognition
Outline notes, concept maps, flow charts, etc.

27. “Keep that info in there..!”
Memory: Storage
Part three
Storage is at the heart of memory…
“Keep that info in there..!”

28. Memory: Storage Atkinson & Shiffrin Model of Memory Storage (1971)
Three stores of memory are shown below
An Information-Processing Model
Sensory Memory & STM serve as temporary storage buffers
All three are seen as memory “stores”
Seen as functionally distinct types of memory

29. Memory: Storage Sensory Memory
Preserves information in its original sensory form for a brief time, usually only a fraction of a second
Iconic Memory
Momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli
Lasts no more than a half a second
Echoic Memory
Momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli
Lasts no more than 4 seconds

30. Memory: Storage Short-Term Memory (STM)
A limited-capacity store that can maintain unrehearsed information for about seconds
Capacity (George Miller, 1956)
7±2 items
Even less in more modern studies?
Without rehearsal, the average person retains only about 4 chunks in short-term memory
FB-INB-CC-IAIB-M
FBI-NBC-CIA-IBM
How to increase duration? Capacity?
Peterson and Peterson
Measured how long undergraduate students could remember three consonants if they couldn’t rehearse them
To prevent rehearsal, the Peterson’s required the students to count backward by threes from the time the consonants were presented until they saw a light that signaled the recall test
Only 10% after 15 seconds

31. Memory: Storage Long-Term Memory (LTM)
An unlimited capacity store that can hold information over lengthy periods of time
Though we have a huge capacity for storage, we don’t store most information with exactness
LTM is still somewhat of a mystery; there is no evidence that memories are permanent
Study done on epileptic patients in which they received ESB – Penfield, the psychologist on the case, reported that ESB triggered long-past memories – eventually found that many of these memories were false or greatly exxagerated

32. Memory: Storage Physical Location of Memories
Memory is NOT stored in a single spot
Synaptic Change
When learning occurs serotonin is released by the neurons of certain synapses
Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)
Synaptic enhancement after learning
An increase in the release of neurotransmitter or receptors on the receiving neuron indicates the strengthening of synapses

33. Types of Memory

34. Memory: Storage Implicit Memory Without conscious recall
Nondeclarative Memory
Actions, skills, conditioned responses & emotional responses
Also known as Procedural Memory
Skill Memory
Riding a bike, typing, tying one’s shoes
Automatic Reactions
Tensing up at the sound of a dentist’s drill

35. Memory: Storage Explicit Memory Conscious recall Declarative Memory
Recollection of words, definitions, names, dates, faces, events, concepts and ideas
Two types of Explicit Memories
Semantic Memory
General knowledge that is not tied to a specific time
Episodic Memory
Chronological, or temporarily dated, recollections of personal experiences

36. Representation & Organization

37. Memory: Storage How is knowledge represented and organized in memory?
Conceptual Hierarchies
Schemas
Semantic Networks
Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP) Models

38. Brewer
&
Treyens
(1981)
Schema Demonstration

39. Memory: Storage Semantic Networks
Consists of nodes representing concepts, joined together by pathways that link related concepts
Less systematic than conceptual hierarchies and/or schemas

40. Memory: Storage Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP) Model
Assumes that cognitive processes depend on patterns of activation in highly interconnected computational networks that resemble neural networks
Consists of large networks of interconnected nodes
Operate much like neurons (excitatory/inhibitory effects)
Asserts that specific memories correspond to particular patterns of activation in these networks

41. “Get that info out of there..!”
Memory: Retrieval
Part FOUR
“Get that info out of there..!”

42. Memory: Retrieval Measures of Memory Recall Recognition Relearning
A measure of memory in which a person must retrieve/reproduce information in the absence of cues
Recognition
A measure of memory in which a person must identify items previously learned
Relearning
A measure of memory that assess the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time

43. Retrieval Cues

44. Memory: Retrieval Retrieval Cues
Stimuli that help gain access to stored memories; serve as anchor points
Mnemonic Devices
Priming
Context Cues
Déjà Vu

45. Memory: Retrieval Priming
The activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory
Often referred to as “memory-less memory”
Occurs without explicit remembering

46. Memory: Retrieval Context Effects
Involves placing yourself in the context where you initially experienced something
Helps to prime memory retrieval
May trigger déjà vu
Cues from the current situation that may subconsciously trigger the retrieval of a similar experience in one’s past

47. Mood & Memories

48. Memory: Retrieval State-Dependent Memory
What someone learns in particular state, is more easily recalled when he/she is again in that state
Someone who hides money while drunk may forget its location until drunk again

49. Memory: Retrieval Mood-Congruent Memory
We usually recall experiences that are consistent with our current mood
In a bad mood, one may interpret someone’s look as a glare
In a good mood, one may encode the same look as interest

50. Memory: Forgetting
Part five
“Where’d that info go?”

51. Memory: Forgetting Forgetting
The inability to retrieve information due to poor encoding, storage or retrieval
The SEVEN SINS OF MEMORY
Absent-mindedness
Transience
Blocking
Misattribution
Suggestibility
Bias
Persistence

52. Memory: Forgetting Encoding Failure
Obviously, we will not remember what we fail to encode
Without encoding, information never enters into one’s long-term memory
EXAMPLE: Nickerson & Adams’ Penny Test
NOTE: Age can impact encoding…

53. Memory: Forgetting Storage Decay
Poor durability of stored memories leads to their decay
Hermann Ebbinghaus (1885)
The Forgetting Curve
The course of forgetting is initially rapid, but levels off over time

54. Memory: Forgetting Retrieval Failure
Although the information is retained in the memory store, it cannot be accessed
You may lack the information needed to retrieve it
Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon

55. Memory: Forgetting Proactive Interference (Forward)
The disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information
As you collect more information, your mental “attic” becomes cluttered
Example
You drop your phone in the toilet & have to get a new phone number
Your memory of the old phone number interferes with the new one

56. Memory: Forgetting Retroactive Interference (Backward)
The disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information
Example
You drop your phone in the toilet & have to get a new phone number
Your new phone number interferes with your memory of the old one
Sleep prevents retroactive interference & leads to better recall

58. Memory: Forgetting Motivated Forgetting
The unknowing revision of memories
Freud proposed that our memory systems do indeed self-censor painful information
Repression
A defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings and memories from consciousness
Memory researchers think repression, rarely, if ever, occurs

60. Let’s Review…
Ellen can’t recall the provisions of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo because she was daydreaming when it was discussed in history class
Ineffective encoding (lack of attention)
Rufus hates his job at Taco Haven & constantly forgets when he is scheduled to work
Retrieval failure (motivated forgetting)

61. Let’s Review…
Ray’s new assistant is named Jason Timberlake. Ray keeps calling him Justin.
Proactive Interference
Tania studied history on Sunday morning & sociology on Sunday evening. It’s Monday, and she’s struggling with her history test because she keeps confusing prominent historians with influential sociologists.
Retroactive Interference

62. Memory: Reconstruction
Part six

63. Memory: Reconstruction
Misconception
Memory is a mental videotape that can provide faithful reproductions of past events
Reality
Countless studies in recent decades have demonstrated that memories are incomplete, distorted, fuzzy reconstructions of past events
The adjectives that best describe memory are not exact or accurate, but rather fragile, fallible and malleable

64. Memory: Reconstruction
The Misinformation Effect
The incorporation of misleading information into one’s memory of an event
Eyewitnesses must reconstruct their memories when questioned about an event; rarely accurate
Loftus & Palmer (1974)
The Automobile Accident Test
Group A: Hit
Group B: Smashed
Weeks later…broken glass?
Impact of storytelling on memories?

65. Memory: Reconstruction
Reality Monitoring
Refers to the process of deciding whether memories are based on external sources (one’s perceptions of actual events) or internal sources (one’s thoughts and imaginations)
Impact of sensory and/or contextual information?
Did I take my medicine this morning?
Did I lock my car door?
Did I turn off the oven?
Did I pack my umbrella?

66. Memory: Reconstruction
Source Monitoring
Involves making attributions about the origins of memories
Did I read that in the NY Times or in Rolling Stone?
Did that come from Anchorman or I Love You, Man?
Source Monitoring Error (Source Amnesia)
When a memory derived from one source is misattributed to another source
“I read that in my Psychology textbook!”
(When you really heard it on Dr. Phil…)
Songwriters?

67. Memory: Reconstruction
Types of Amnesia
Retrograde Amnesia
Involves the loss of memories for events that occurred prior to the onset of amnesia
Anterograde Amnesia
Involves the loss of memories for events that occur after the onset of amnesia
The Case of H.M. (Henry Molasion)