1. Constructing Gender and Sexuality
Chapter 9

2. Sex and Gender
The terms sex and gender are often used interchangeably, but sociologists differentiate between the two.
Sex – an individual's membership in one of two biologically distinct categories —male or female”.
Biological distinctions between male and female.
Includes primary and secondary sex organs
Sometimes in our society, we see these terms used interchangeably. For instance, on a job application, you might see a checkbox that says “select your gender, male or female.” This is an inappropriate use of the term gender—the application is actually referring to the term sex. Why do you think someone might use the term gender rather than sex? (Your students might talk about political correctness or the connotations associated with the term sex.)
Understanding the differences between these two terms is essential for understanding the concepts throughout the section, so we will spend the next few minutes making sure we’re all clear about the differences.
Sex:
About 1 baby in 1,000 is born intersexed, or hermaphroditic, which means having an abnormal chromosomal makeup and mixed or indeterminate male and female sex characteristics. This is a function of biological sex.
Gender is different because it relates to the way that a person behaves based on his or her biological sex. In other words, we learn how to act manly or womanly based on the sex that we’re born. 2

3. Sex and Gender (cont’d.)
Distinctions between male and female is based on primary sex characteristics (including chromosomes, hormones, and reproductive organs) and secondary sex characteristics, such as body hair, skin texture, and body proportions.

4. Gender
Gender – refers to the expectations, physical, behavioral, and personality traits that a group considers normal for its male and female members; acquired through socialization; vary from society to society.
In reality gender is a continuum, not so black and white, dichotomous or binary

5. Gender
Gender identity – an awareness or self-definition of being masculine or feminine or a sense of gender, based on culture.
Gender expression – refers to an individual’s behavioral manifestations of gender.
Gender roles – culturally-based expectations associated with each sex.
Represent an ideal since people do not always behave as expected.
Sex stereotypes encourage men to be masculine and women to be feminine.

6. Essentialist and Constructionist Approaches
Biological determinism – attribution of behavioral differences to inherited physical characteristics.
Essentialists see gender as biological or genetic and believe that gender is:
a simple, two-category (binary) system
determined by your chromosomes, hormones, and genitalia
permanent and unchanging
Essentialists are generally not sociologists– they are often in fields such as medicine, theology, and biology, although sometimes sociologists in certain subfields, like sociobiology, will also adhere to this principle. 6

7. Essentialist and Constructionist Approaches (cont’d.)
Obvious differences between sexes include muscle and bone structure and fatty tissue composition – not personality, characteristics, roles, etc.
Most sociologists use a constructionist approach and see sex, gender, and sexuality as social constructs.
Dominant Position in Sociology
Social Factors Primary, Not Biological
If Biological, Should Be Less Variation
Constructionists believe that gender is constructed, or created, through our interactions with other members of society. In the United States we tend to classify people as being male or female, but other societies have different classification systems (some of which are mentioned in your textbook) and people are treated differently based on the norms associated with that other system. 7

8. Sexuality and Sexual Orientation
Sexual orientation is the inclination to be heterosexual (attracted to the opposite sex), homosexual (attracted to the same sex), or bisexual (attracted to either sex). Those who are asexual may simply reject any sexual identity at all.
Many have embraced the idea that sexual orientation is genetic, based on the idea that if sexuality is innate then sexuality-based discrimination is unacceptable.
Sexual orientation is not based on gender (a “masculine” woman is not always attracted to other women, etc.).
Although some evidence supports a biological component to sexual orientation, research in this area is still preliminary. Many have embraced the idea that sexual orientation is genetic, based on the idea that if sexuality is innate then sexuality-based discrimination is unacceptable. While most Americans oppose gay marriage, many say they would support civil unions.
Sexual orientation is not based on gender (a “masculine” woman is not always attracted to other women, etc.). 8

9. Sexuality and Sexual Orientation (cont'd.)
Is sexual orientation a continuum rather than a few simple categories?
Alfred Kinsey suggested that human sexuality was far more diverse than was commonly assumed. His own studies led him to believe that people were not exclusively heterosexual or homosexual but rather could fall along a wide spectrum.
The Kinsey Scale of Sexuality is an example of “queering the binary” as it rejects binary and heteronormative categories of sexuality. 9

10. Functionalist Perspective on Gender
Division of responsibilities between males and females survived because it was beneficial for human living.
Early humans found sex-based division of labor efficient and endured because it promoted the survival of the species; believe that there are social roles better suited to one gender than the other, and that societies are more stable when certain tasks are done by the appropriate sex.
Example: According to Talcott Parsons:
Men are more suited for an instrumental role (the person who provides the family’s material support and is often an authority figure).
Women are more suited for an expressive role (the person who provides the family’s emotional support and nurturing).
The traditional division of labor has dysfunctions, especially for modern society.

11. Conflict Perspective on Gender
Men and women have historically had differential access to the necessary resources (material and privileges) outside-the-home for success.
By keeping the traditional division of labor intact (which is in their interest), men can maintain the status quo and preserve the privileges they enjoy; protect their dominance of women and society.
Point out that men stand to lose a great deal if gender inequality disappears.

12. Symbolic Interactionism Perspective on Gender
Emphasize how the concept of gender is socially constructed, maintained, and reproduced in our everyday lives.
Gender definitions are imparted through socialization.
They are learned and reinforced through interaction with parents, teachers, peers, and the media.

13. Theoretical Perspectives: Gender Inequality

14. Socialization, Gender, and Sexuality
Gender role socialization is the lifelong process of learning to be masculine or feminine, primarily through four main agents of socialization: families, schools, peers, and the media.
Ask your students if they can identify specific examples of gender role socialization in their own lives. For instance, were they ever told that a specific behavior wasn’t appropriate because they were a boy or a girl? Did they ever receive a harsher or more lenient punishment because they were a boy or a girl? Students are sometimes hesitant to think that the way that they act out their gender has been socially constructed, yet they are remarkably astute in noticing differences in the ways they have been treated in their own lives as a result of their biological sex and subsequent gender role socialization. 14

15. Parents Contribution to Gender Socialization
Parents begin socializing children at birth. Families are usually the primary source of socialization and greatly impact gender role socialization.
Transfer values and attitudes regarding the ways boys and girls should behave; boys look up to fathers and girls to mothers
As parents respond to their children’s behavior, they usually intentionally as well as unconsciously continue to transfer their gender-related values.
Children are evaluated according to their level of conformity to gender definition.

16. Schools Contribution to Gender Socialization
Teachers encourage different behaviors from girls and boys.
Girls are systematically taught passivity, a dislike of math and science, and a deference to the alleged superior abilities of boys.
Research shows that teachers treat boys and girls differently. This may teach children that there are different expectations of them, based on their sex.
Ex: Teachers are more likely to call on boys and accept answers given by boys who call out answers.

17. Peer Contribution to Gender Socialization
Children who imitate the opposite sex meet considerable opposition.
Teens are rewarded by peers when they conform to gender norms and stigmatized when they do not.
Adolescence is the time when an individual is establishing an identity, and identity is closely linked with definitions of masculinity and femininity.

18. Media Contribution to Gender Socialization
In general, the media present the most stereotypical version of gender definitions, thus reflecting and reinforcing the limits on the options available to both sexes in all forms of media: television, movies, magazines, books, video games, and so on.
Nowhere in the mass media are gender role stereotypes more prevalent than in advertising.
Debate as to how influential/damaging the media really is and how much we are impacted

19. Gender Inequality
Gender Stratification – refers to men’s and women’s unequal access to power, property, and prestige
Gender = master status
Label that guides our behavior and serves as a basis of power and privilege.
Women are disadvantaged in institutional settings in our society.
Compared to men, women are more likely to:
do a disproportionate amount of housework.
earn less than their male peers at work.
live in poverty

20. Gender, Sexuality, and Life Chances (cont’d.)
Feminization of poverty refers to the economic trend that women are more likely than men to live in poverty, due in part to the gendered gap in wages, the higher proportion of single mothers compared to single fathers, and the increasing cost of child care.
The gender gap in wages has contributed, in part, to the “feminization of poverty”

21. Women as a Minority Group
Gender is the primary division between people.
Women suffer the effects of sexism: a set of beliefs, norms, and values used to justify sexual inequality.
Sexist ideology – the belief that men are naturally superior to women.
Is sexism disappearing?
Yes and No

22. Gender Inequality in the US
Until the 20th century, US women did not have the right to vote, hold property, make legal contracts, or serve on a jury
While women enjoy more rights today, gender inequality still continues to play a central role in social life.
Gaps continue to be reflected in the continuing occupational, economic, legal, and political inequality experienced by American women.

23. Gender Inequality in the US
Evidence of educational gains made by women.
More females than males enrolled in college.
Females earn 56% of all bachelor degrees
Women complete bachelor degrees faster than men
Proportion of professional degrees earned by women has increased sharply.

24. College Students by Sex and Race-Ethnicity

25. Gender Changes in Professional Degrees

26. Gender Inequality in the Workplace
The Pay Gap
Women earn about 82 cents to the dollar of what men are paid.
All industrialized nations have a pay gap.
Research found that half of the gender gap is due to women choosing lower-paying careers.
The other half is due to gender discrimination and the “child- penalty” –women missing out on work experience while they care of their children.
Women of all races and ethnic groups earn less than men
African American and Latino women have a significantly lower wage gap with their male counterparts than white and Asian women experience

27. The Feminist/Women’s Movement
The women’s movement is a social movement aimed at the achievement of sexual equality—socially, legally, politically, and economically
In the United States, the history of the women’s movement can be divided into three historical waves
1st wave: mid-19th C through 1920; focused on gaining suffrage for women
2nd wave: 1960s–1970s; focused on women’s equal access to employment and education
3rd wave: 1980s–present; focused on diversity among women’s experiences and identities

28. The Men’s Movement
Male liberationism originated in the 1970s to discuss the challenges of masculinity
Both sympathetic with feminism, bit subsequently, the movement has split into:
men’s rights movement (a group that feels that feminism creates disadvantages for men) and
pro-feminist men’s movement (a group that feels that sexism harms both men and women and wants to fundamentally change society’s ideas about gender).
Although originally broadly sympathetic with feminism, the men’s movement has now split into the men’s rights movement (a group that feels that feminism creates disadvantages for men) and the pro-feminist men’s movement (a group that feels that sexism harms both men and women and wants to fundamentally change society’s ideas about gender). 28