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Teaching English as a Foreign Language
Introduction and historical background Fayiz Alsani
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Why English? World Englishes Circles within circles Language Varieties
Lingua Franca – who speaks it to whom? (On the home page, go to Archives on the right hand side of the page and select June 2009)
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China, Russia, Brazil, Europe, Asia
English spoken in today’s world (Kachru, 1985) Inner Circle: UK, Ireland, USA, Canada,Australasia, South Africa 380 million speakers Outer Circle: India, Singapore, Malaysia, Nigeria 300 million speakers Expanding Circle: China, Russia, Brazil, Europe, Asia > 1000 million speakers
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How many words are in normal circulation in written and spoken English nowadays, which a native speaker ‘knows’? Plag (2003): 45,000-60,000 words (considerably less than the contents of the OED!) Crystal (2003: 426): around 60,000 words for an educated speaker’s active vocabulary and 75,000 for passive and active. Plag, I. (2003) Word-Formation in English. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Crystal, D. (2003) English as a global language. (2nd Ed.) Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
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How many words does a speaker of English need to be able to use to take part in everyday conversation? There is a core of 2,000 words which are used and re-used, and they are sufficient for most ordinary conversation (although we need other specialist words to talk about individual topics of interest). McCarthy, O’Keeffe & Walsh (2009) The Vocabulary Matrix: Understanding, Learning, Teaching. Andover : Heinle, Cengage Learning EMEA 2010 (p.7)
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Coverage of words in English
No. of Words used For regular conversation 1st 2000 words 2nd 2000 words 3rd 2000 words 4th 2000 words 5th 2000 words 10,000 words 83% coverage 5% coverage 3% coverage 2% coverage 1% coverage = 94% coverage
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Some Acronyms EFL – English as a foreign language
ESL – English as a second language ESOL – English for speakers of other languages EAL – English as an additional language ELT - English language teaching L1 - mother tongue L2 – the language that is being learned, also called the ‘target language’
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Historical Development to ELT
World War II – effect and consequences International trade and commerce Transportation Tourism Telecommunications IT and other technologies
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Approaches and Methods
An Approach concerns the theory regarding language and language learning. It’s the source of the underlying practices and principles. A Method is the practical application of an Approach – activities, roles, materials, syllabus. A Procedure is the ordered sequence of techniques. A Technique is a simple activity (e.g. the finger technique used for contractions).
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~ An Overview ~ 1. Grammar Translation Method (GTM) 2. The Direct Method 3. The Audio-Lingual Method 4. Communicative Language Teaching Humanistic Approaches Eclecticism/ Post-method Pedagogy
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Grammar Translation Method
Heavy emphasis on grammar: grammatical paradigms (rules) The Classic method Reading comprehensions: high culture literature Translation exercises Grammar Translation Method Little or no emphasis on speaking or listening skills Taught through the L1 (e.g. taught French through English) Classical method of language teaching (known in the US as the Prussian method). Used for the teaching on Latin & Greek initially. Used for teaching Modern Languages up till the 1970s. Based on meticulous analysis of written texts. Translation exercises; reading comprehension and parallel writing. Main aim: to be able to read the ‘high culture’ literature of the target language Students’ L1 was the language used in the classroom. Little emphasis was on speaking or listening. The close study of the syntax of the target language was a core aspect of this method – language was learned through detailed analysis of rules followed by translation Grammatical Paradigms had to be learnt by heart and learners were expected, by deduction, to be able to parse ‘on demand’. Focus on accuracy Focus on accuracy: grammatical parsing & translation of vocabulary lists
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Paradigms (rule tables)
Infinitive Past Tense Past Participle to break to sing to put broke sang put broken sung Paradigms: Grammatical rule formations Ss’ achievement in acquiring a language was measured in terms of how well they could parse/remember grammatical rules; answer comprehension questions on written texts and translate passages from literature.
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While it was not expected that learners might ever need to use the language in a practical sense, the mental exercise was considered to be educationally worthwhile.
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Disadvantages Now watch this clip
Grammar was confusing and challenging Metalanguage overload Memorisation of rules and vocabulary was a strain and demotivated students Students in passive role Over-emphasis on translation Speaking and listening skills ignored Grammatical ‘facts’ about the language were often highly confusing for the learners. Memorisation of these was a strain for most ss. Word for word translations were not always satisfactory. Learning the grammar of a language also meant learning a substantial metalanguage (language used to talk about language – what is the 3rd person singular of the present perfect of the verb X?) Students had a very passive learning experience. Speaking and listening skills were not addressed. Now watch this clip
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The Direct Method aka: Oral or Natural Method
naturalistic method active involvement of the learner in speaking and listening realistic everyday situations The Direct Method aka: Oral or Natural Method only the target language is spoken in class In the late 1800s, there were attempts to build a methodology around language acquisition – naturalistic methods – this method was popular in Europe and the US A method based on active involvement of the learner in speaking and listening to the foreign language in realistic everyday situations. No use is made of the students’ mother tongue. Ss are encouraged to think in the target language – hence the ‘Direct’ method. Aim: direct thinking in the target language
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Core idea of Direct Method
Children learn by listening and speaking, naturally Reading and writing come later for children Core idea of Direct Method Children ‘pick up’ grammar naturally Children don’t need metalanguage As children, we learn languages incrementally by hearing them spoken around us and by engaging in conversation. Reading and writing come later. Grammar is ‘picked up’ unconsciously. No reference is made to metalanguage (grammar terminology)
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Children learning English using Direct Method
Adults learning Spanish using Audio-lingual Method Adults learning English using Direct Method <iframe width="560" height="315" src=" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen></iframe>
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The teacher’s role To immerse the students in language
actively demonstrate the meaning through pictures, gestures, mime and so on. The teacher’s role ask lots of question prompts To immerse the students in a flow of examples of the spoken foreign language while actively demonstrating the meaning through pictures, gestures, mime and so on. To cue students with questions to initiate conversation. To expose students to patterns of the language so that grammar can be intuited. expose learners to lots of language patterns (hidden grammar)
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Some key techniques: Reading aloud Self correction Dictation
Reading aloud Here students read aloud and the T uses gesture, mime etc. to make the meaning clear. Translation is strictly avoided. Self correction Teacher uses various strategies to promote self-correction of spoken errors by the ss. Dictation
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Disadvantages of the Direct Method
How children learn is not exactly the same as how we learn a foreign language Learners will not always pick up grammar rule naturally Disadvantages of the Direct Method Learners have no metalanguage so can’t look things up independently Based on child acquisition which is not the same as language learning. Purely intuitive approach to grammar will not always work, nor will it suit all learners (i.e. inductive – where ss ‘induce’ the rule for themselves). Not all grammatical rules are easily induced. Not knowing any ‘metalanguage’ leaves one short when it comes to looking things up independently. Heavy emphasis on eliciting everything rather than teaching – teacher has to try to tease out everything through q & a routine so students can discover the language themselves. This can be very pedestrian for the teacher. Heavy emphasis on eliciting everything rather than teaching
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Audio-Lingual Method
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The Audio-Lingual Method
Developed in the US during WW2 Need for soldiers to learn languages quickly Based on Behaviourism (stimulus-reward) The Audio-Lingual Method Language was seen as habit formation Language broken up in to habits that learner could be trained into Developed in the US, during World War 2, resulting from the need for accelerated language learning for military purposes. Based on behavioural psychology, where language is seen as a process of habit formation (Skinner).
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Language as habit Any language can be broken down into “habits”
Words, phrases and dialogues These are “performed”, over and over again Right √ Positive reinforcement Wrong X Negative reinforcement Language as habit In this behaviouralist view, any language can be broken down into a series of habits which the learner has the ability to perform. Just as one can train a dog to jump through a hoop by using positive and negative reinforcement, it was believed that one could instil language habits in a similar fashion. Positive Reinforcement This is given in the form of positive comment by the T when the student performs correctly ~Well done! Negative Reinforcement This is given in the form of negative comment by the T when the student performs incorrectly ~That’s not correct, try again… Images ©
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Language as habit Stimulus Response Reinforcement Three elements:
Something is taught or presented Response this is a reaction to the stimulus Three elements: Stimulus – something that is taught or presented Response – this is a reaction to the stimulus Reinforcement – marks the response – teacher approval or praise Reinforcement + teacher approval or praise - teacher points out its wrong and asks for repetition
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Key Principles “Audio-lingual” => listening and speaking are most important Role of teacher: provider of clear correct models of language Grammar not taught overly. Students expected to learn rules as habits formed through repetition Pronunciation is very important Only target language spoken in class Language labs and recorded dialogues were also used Key Principles As the name suggests the audio-lingual method is about listening and speaking. The T’s role is to provide correct oral models of the language habits, often on cassettes in the language lab (which came out of this method). The natural order of language was seen as: listening-speaking-reading-writing Grammar was not taught first, the students were presented with the language first, allowed to practise and form analogies, before the rules were given Target language was the language of the classroom. Pronunciation was given very major focus. Contrastive analysis was used (and developed out of this) where differences between the students’ mother tongue and the target language predict where the L2 errors are likely to occur. Contrastive analysis: compare your L1 and the L2 to predict errors
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Disadvantages All controlled practice
Language as a series of habits: naïve view Highly teacher-controlled Correction, correction, correction… Imbalance in focus on skills of speaking and listening Based on a naïve view of language as a series of habits to be formed. Very teacher controlled/centred. All controlled practice. Over-correction. Drilling types: Repetition Substitution Single word prompts Free substitution Re-statement
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Audio-Lingual Method and Grammar
Grammar was presented covertly No use was made of metalanguage Drilling was a key technique to be used in (and to emerge out of) this method. copyright AL method and grammar Grammar was presented covertly and no use was made of metalanguage. Drilling was a key technique to be used in (and to emerge out of) this method. Drills centred around repetitions of chunks of language. The logic being that ss would bit-by-bit build up these phrases (habits) and be able to use (perform) the language. In drilling, positive reinforcement was considered more effective than negative reinforcement, and so, avoiding the opportunity for error was important in the process of error prevention. Ideally, ss would develop correct habit formation strategies via the process of: stimulus-response-reinforcement whereby patterns of language would become automatic. Build up complexity of phrases bit-by-bit (habits) Over time, with enough repetition, student would be able to “perform” the language Repeat chunks of language
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Other approaches and methods
Task Based Learning (TBL) Silent Way (cuisinaire rods, phonemic chart) Suggestopedia(lowering the affective filter) Total Physical Response (TPR) Lexical Approach
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TEACHING METHODS AND TEACHER & LEARNER ROLES
Teacher Roles Learner Roles Situational Language Teaching Context Setter Error Corrector Imitator Memorizer Audio-lingualism Language Modeller Drill Leader Pattern Practicer Accuracy Enthusiast Communicative Language Teaching Needs Analyst Task Designer Improvisor Negotiator Total Physical Response Commander Action Monitor Order Taker Performer Community Language Learning Counsellor Paraphraser Collaborator Whole Person The Natural Approach Actor Props User Guesser Immerser Suggestopedia Auto-hypnotist Authority Figure Relaxer True-Believer
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The Communication Continuum
Non-communicative Communicative activities activities No communicative desire No communicative purpose Form, not content One language item only Teacher intervention Materials control A desire to communicate A specific communicative purpose Content, not form Variety of language No teacher intervention No materials control Harmer, The Practice of English Language Teaching. Essex, Pearson Education. P85.
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Communicative Language Teaching CLT Approach
What to teach CLT stresses the importance of language functions instead of relying on grammar and vocabulary use language appropriately in a variety of contexts for a variety of purposes How to teach Plentiful exposure to language in use Plenty of opportunities for students to use the language to develop their knowledge and skills
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Theory of language The functional view of language is the primary one behind the communicative method. This means that we use language to communicate with each other and to express whatever it is we want to say. This theory of language means that our actual words serve the specific function or purpose of self-expression. In this theory, the semantic and communicative dimensions of the language are more emphasised than the grammatical characteristics, although these are also included and important.
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Theory of learning Here are some principles that may be inferred using the CLT: Activities that involve real communication promote learning Activities in which language is used for carrying out meaningful tasks promote learning Language that is meaningful to the learner promotes learning Activities – street directions, in a shop, greetings, restaurant menu, role plays
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Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)
Began late 60s, early 70s in UK Inviting Apologising Requesting Giving directions Introducing yourself Language broken into Communicative functions Reaction to AL and DL methods Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) Building Communicative Competence was core Ability to communicate in real social situations The audiolingual method was rejected in the 50s and there was a change in teaching practices An approach rather than a method: while there is a theory behind it, classroom applications are more open to individual interpretation. Evolved in the late 60s and early 70s out of reaction to the AL and Direct Methods, particularly in Britain. (see Wilkins, Widdowson, Candlin for example). Communicative Competence is seen as one’s awareness of the rules governing the appropriate use of language in social situations. Interactional competence/awareness – a recent area of interest. This gave rise to a functional approach to language teaching, which broke language into communicative functions (e.g. apologising, talking about ability) and for each of these there were corresponding exponents. Grammar not taught overtly
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In a nutshell… ‘an approach to language teaching that focuses on language functions and communicative competence* and not on grammatical structure’ Crystal (1987:417) *communicative competence = ability to communicate
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Function: Saying you are sorry…
Exponents*: (note different registers) - Sorry - I’m so sorry… - I’m terribly sorry… - I’m so terribly sorry, … - I’m awfully sorry, please excuse me for… *the words used to perform the function (e.g. of apologising)
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Language Function Exponents
Greeting Leave taking Apologising Requesting Inviting Advising Hello, hi, how are you, how do you do, morning Goodbye, good luck, see ya, later, take care Sorry, so sorry, I’m sorry, I apologise, excuse me, oops! May I, can I, will you, would you, if you wouldn’t mind Please come, you are invited to, X and X request the pleasure of your company If I were you, you should, you ought to, I suggest
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Language Functions - considerations
Register/Genre: a speaking/writing style appropriate to its context i.e. academic, legal, medical, etc. Formality – degrees of, from casual conversation, personal chat, etc. right through the spectrum to formal, official IT IS VERY IMPORTANT TO TEACH LEARNERS THE APPROPRIACY OF VOCABULARY WHEN TEACHING NEW WORDS !
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How learners use language
The objectives of CLT include: students will learn to use language as a means of expression students will use language as a means of expressing values and judgments students will learn to express the functions that best meet their own communication needs.
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Core principles Main focus on communication
Focus on ‘appropriacy’: using the right language for the situation (informal/neutral/formal) Focus on learners having an active role Core principles Activities that promote meaningful communications (e.g. role-play) Use of “Authentic Materials” (i.e. material from the real world, like films, articles from the newspaper, fliers, etc.) The primary function was communication Focus on formality, appropriacy Use activities that promote meaningful communication Reflects the needs of learners Learners are more active Use authentic materials
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Textbook author Jack Richards talks about Communicative Language Teaching
A class focusing on communication
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Basic Features of CLT David Nunan (1991:279) lists five basic characteristics of Communicative Language Teaching: (1) An emphasis on learning to communicate through interaction in the target language. (2) The introduction of authentic texts into the learning situation. (3) The provision of opportunities for learners to focus, not only on the language but also on the learning process itself. (4) An enhancement of the learner's own personal experiences as important contributing elements to classroom learning. (5) An attempt to link classroom language learning with language activation outside the classroom.
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The CLT syllabus in the classroom
CLT often uses a functional-notional syllabus. Yalden (1997) classified a number of communicative syllabus types of learning techniques and activities which uses almost any activity that engages learners in authentic communication. Littewood, however, distinguished two major activity types: functional communication activities: ones aimed at developing certain language skills and functions, but which involve communication, and social interaction activities, such as conversation and discussion sessions, dialogues and role plays
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CLT classroom activities
Used to contextualise language functions Information gap activities Language games Various interaction patterns – pair/group Role play Simulation Communicative tasks Projects
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PAIR WORK… A SAMPLE COMMUNICATIVE TASK
A and B in pairs Complete the crossword You mustn’t let your partner see your sheet Give clues, explanations, but you can’t say the actual word. Take turns. Each person decides which clue s/he is going to give
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Pair Work – Communicative Task
A and B A has the full map B only has certain features/details A must use words (communicate) to give B the other details of the map, so that at the end, B’s map should resemble A’s. Key/legend to map – give class full details.
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Guidelines for your peer teaching
Design, create or adapt a task for your class which involves an information gap. This means that your students must communicate in order to provide each other with the missing information and complete the task together. Instructions, demonstration, concept-checking understanding, handouts, students do the activity, feedback
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Buzz group task Each group will get one activity from Tandem Plus (1991)C. Read & A. Matthews, Longman In groups look at the following for each activity: Task objective – do the task yourself, first Language focus – what language is being practised? Instruction giving suggestions: think about what instructions you would give your non-English speaking students – what words and phrases would you need to give them in advance Each individual makes notes as necessary. New groups are formed using one member from each old group. Share activity information and comment on task effectiveness.
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