1. Teaching English as a Foreign Language
Introduction and historical background
Fayiz Alsani

2. Why English? World Englishes Circles within circles Language Varieties
Lingua Franca – who speaks it to whom?
(On the home page, go to Archives on the right hand side of the page and select June 2009)

3. China, Russia, Brazil, Europe, Asia
English spoken in today’s world (Kachru, 1985)
Inner Circle:
UK, Ireland, USA, Canada,Australasia, South Africa
380 million speakers
Outer Circle:
India, Singapore, Malaysia, Nigeria
300 million speakers
Expanding Circle:
China, Russia, Brazil, Europe, Asia
> 1000 million speakers

4. How many words are in normal circulation in written and spoken English nowadays, which a native speaker ‘knows’?
Plag (2003): 45,000-60,000 words
(considerably less than the contents of the OED!)
Crystal (2003: 426):
around 60,000 words for an educated speaker’s active vocabulary
and 75,000 for passive and active.
Plag, I. (2003) Word-Formation in English. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Crystal, D. (2003) English as a global language. (2nd Ed.) Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

5. How many words does a speaker of English need to be able to use to take part in everyday conversation?
There is a core of 2,000 words which are used and re-used, and they are sufficient for most ordinary conversation (although we need other specialist words to talk about individual topics of interest).
McCarthy, O’Keeffe & Walsh (2009) The Vocabulary Matrix: Understanding, Learning, Teaching. Andover : Heinle, Cengage Learning EMEA 2010 (p.7)

6. Coverage of words in English
No. of Words used
For regular conversation
1st 2000 words
2nd 2000 words
3rd 2000 words
4th 2000 words
5th 2000 words
10,000 words
83% coverage
5% coverage
3% coverage
2% coverage
1% coverage
= 94% coverage

7. Some Acronyms EFL – English as a foreign language
ESL – English as a second language
ESOL – English for speakers of other languages
EAL – English as an additional language
ELT - English language teaching
L1 - mother tongue
L2 – the language that is being learned, also called the ‘target language’

8. Historical Development to ELT
World War II – effect and consequences
International trade
and commerce
Transportation
Tourism
Telecommunications
IT and other technologies

9. Approaches and Methods
An Approach concerns the theory regarding language and language learning. It’s the source of the underlying practices and principles.
A Method is the practical application of an Approach – activities, roles, materials, syllabus.
A Procedure is the ordered sequence of techniques.
A Technique is a simple activity (e.g. the finger technique used for contractions).

10. ~ An Overview ~
1. Grammar Translation Method (GTM) 2. The Direct Method 3. The Audio-Lingual Method 4. Communicative Language Teaching Humanistic Approaches Eclecticism/ Post-method Pedagogy

11. Grammar Translation Method
Heavy emphasis on grammar: grammatical paradigms (rules)
The Classic method
Reading comprehensions: high culture literature
Translation exercises
Grammar Translation Method
Little or no emphasis on speaking or listening skills
Taught through the L1 (e.g. taught French through English)
Classical method of language teaching (known in the US as the Prussian method). Used for the teaching on Latin & Greek initially. Used for teaching Modern Languages up till the 1970s.
Based on meticulous analysis of written texts.
Translation exercises;
reading comprehension and parallel writing.
Main aim: to be able to read the ‘high culture’ literature of the target language
Students’ L1 was the language used in the classroom.
Little emphasis was on speaking or listening.
The close study of the syntax of the target language was a core aspect of this method – language was learned through detailed analysis of rules followed by translation
Grammatical Paradigms had to be learnt by heart and learners were expected, by deduction, to be able to parse ‘on demand’.
Focus on accuracy
Focus on accuracy: grammatical parsing & translation of vocabulary lists

12. Paradigms (rule tables)
Infinitive
Past Tense
Past Participle
to break
to sing
to put
broke
sang
put
broken
sung
Paradigms: Grammatical rule formations
Ss’ achievement in acquiring a language was measured in terms of how well they could parse/remember grammatical rules;
answer comprehension questions on written texts and translate passages from literature.

13. While it was not expected that learners might ever need to use the language in a practical sense, the mental exercise was considered to be educationally worthwhile.

14. Disadvantages Now watch this clip
Grammar was confusing and challenging
Metalanguage overload
Memorisation of rules and vocabulary was a strain and demotivated students
Students in passive role
Over-emphasis on translation
Speaking and listening skills ignored
Grammatical ‘facts’ about the language were often highly confusing for the learners.
Memorisation of these was a strain for most ss.
Word for word translations were not always satisfactory.
Learning the grammar of a language also meant learning a substantial metalanguage (language used to talk about language – what is the 3rd person singular of the present perfect of the verb X?)
Students had a very passive learning experience.
Speaking and listening skills were not addressed.
Now watch this clip

15. The Direct Method aka: Oral or Natural Method
naturalistic method
active involvement of the learner in speaking and listening
realistic everyday situations
The Direct Method aka: Oral or Natural Method
only the target language is spoken in class
In the late 1800s, there were attempts to build a methodology around language acquisition – naturalistic methods – this method was popular in Europe and the US
A method based on active involvement of the learner in speaking and listening to the foreign language in realistic everyday situations.
No use is made of the students’ mother tongue.
Ss are encouraged to think in the target language – hence the ‘Direct’ method.
Aim: direct thinking in the target language

16. Core idea of Direct Method
Children learn by listening and speaking, naturally
Reading and writing come later for children
Core idea of Direct Method
Children ‘pick up’ grammar naturally
Children don’t need metalanguage
As children, we learn languages incrementally by hearing them spoken around us and by engaging in conversation.
Reading and writing come later.
Grammar is ‘picked up’ unconsciously. No reference is made to metalanguage (grammar terminology)

17. Children learning English using Direct Method
Adults learning Spanish using Audio-lingual Method
Adults learning English using Direct Method
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18. The teacher’s role To immerse the students in language
actively demonstrate the meaning through pictures, gestures, mime and so on.
The teacher’s role
ask lots of question prompts
To immerse the students in a flow of examples of the spoken foreign language while actively demonstrating the meaning through pictures, gestures, mime and so on.
To cue students with questions to initiate conversation.
To expose students to patterns of the language so that grammar can be intuited.
expose learners to lots of language patterns (hidden grammar)

19. Some key techniques: Reading aloud Self correction Dictation
Reading aloud Here students read aloud and the T uses gesture, mime etc. to make the meaning clear. Translation is strictly avoided.
Self correction Teacher uses various strategies to promote self-correction of spoken errors by the ss.
Dictation

20. Disadvantages of the Direct Method
How children learn is not exactly the same as how we learn a foreign language
Learners will not always pick up grammar rule naturally
Disadvantages of the Direct Method
Learners have no metalanguage so can’t look things up independently
Based on child acquisition which is not the same as language learning.
Purely intuitive approach to grammar will not always work, nor will it suit all learners (i.e. inductive – where ss ‘induce’ the rule for themselves).
Not all grammatical rules are easily induced.
Not knowing any ‘metalanguage’ leaves one short when it comes to looking things up independently.
Heavy emphasis on eliciting everything rather than teaching – teacher has to try to tease out everything through q & a routine so students can discover the language themselves. This can be very pedestrian for the teacher.
Heavy emphasis on eliciting everything rather than teaching

21. Audio-Lingual Method

22. The Audio-Lingual Method
Developed in the US during WW2
Need for soldiers to learn languages quickly
Based on Behaviourism (stimulus-reward)
The Audio-Lingual Method
Language was seen as habit formation
Language broken up in to habits that learner could be trained into
Developed in the US, during World War 2, resulting from the need for accelerated language learning for military purposes.
Based on behavioural psychology, where language is seen as a process of habit formation (Skinner).

23. Language as habit Any language can be broken down into “habits”
Words, phrases and dialogues
These are “performed”, over and over again
Right √
Positive reinforcement
Wrong X
Negative reinforcement
Language as habit
In this behaviouralist view, any language can be broken down into a series of habits which the learner has the ability to perform.
Just as one can train a dog to jump through a hoop by using positive and negative reinforcement, it was believed that one could instil language habits in a similar fashion.
Positive Reinforcement
This is given in the form of positive comment by the T when the student performs correctly
~Well done!
Negative Reinforcement
This is given in the form of negative comment by the T when the student performs incorrectly
~That’s not correct, try again…
Images ©

24. Language as habit Stimulus Response Reinforcement Three elements:
Something is taught or presented
Response
this is a reaction to the stimulus
Three elements:
Stimulus – something that is taught or presented
Response – this is a reaction to the stimulus
Reinforcement – marks the response – teacher approval or praise
Reinforcement
+ teacher approval or praise
- teacher points out its wrong and asks for repetition

25. Key Principles
“Audio-lingual” => listening and speaking are most important
Role of teacher: provider of clear correct models of language
Grammar not taught overly. Students expected to learn rules as habits formed through repetition
Pronunciation is very important
Only target language spoken in class
Language labs and recorded dialogues were also used
Key Principles
As the name suggests the audio-lingual method is about listening and speaking.
The T’s role is to provide correct oral models of the language habits, often on cassettes in the language lab (which came out of this method).
The natural order of language was seen as: listening-speaking-reading-writing
Grammar was not taught first, the students were presented with the language first, allowed to practise and form analogies, before the rules were given
Target language was the language of the classroom.
Pronunciation was given very major focus.
Contrastive analysis was used (and developed out of this) where differences between the students’ mother tongue and the target language predict where the L2 errors are likely to occur.
Contrastive analysis: compare your L1 and the L2 to predict errors

26. Disadvantages All controlled practice
Language as a series of habits: naïve view
Highly teacher-controlled
Correction, correction, correction…
Imbalance in focus on skills of speaking and listening
Based on a naïve view of language as a series of habits to be formed.
Very teacher controlled/centred.
All controlled practice.
Over-correction.
Drilling types:
Repetition
Substitution
Single word prompts
Free substitution
Re-statement

27. Audio-Lingual Method and Grammar
Grammar was presented covertly
No use was made of metalanguage
Drilling was a key technique to be used in (and to emerge out of) this method.
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AL method and grammar
Grammar was presented covertly and no use was made of metalanguage.
Drilling was a key technique to be used in (and to emerge out of) this method.
Drills centred around repetitions of chunks of language. The logic being that ss would bit-by-bit build up these phrases (habits) and be able to use (perform) the language.
In drilling, positive reinforcement was considered more effective than negative reinforcement, and so, avoiding the opportunity for error was important in the process of error prevention.
Ideally, ss would develop correct habit formation strategies via the process of: stimulus-response-reinforcement whereby patterns of language would become automatic.
Build up complexity of phrases bit-by-bit (habits)
Over time, with enough repetition, student would be able to “perform” the language
Repeat chunks of language

28. Other approaches and methods
Task Based Learning (TBL)
Silent Way (cuisinaire rods, phonemic chart)
Suggestopedia(lowering the affective filter)
Total Physical Response (TPR)
Lexical Approach

29. TEACHING METHODS AND TEACHER & LEARNER ROLES
Teacher Roles
Learner Roles
Situational Language Teaching
Context Setter Error Corrector
Imitator Memorizer
Audio-lingualism
Language Modeller Drill Leader
Pattern Practicer Accuracy Enthusiast
Communicative Language Teaching
Needs Analyst Task Designer
Improvisor Negotiator
Total Physical Response
Commander Action Monitor
Order Taker Performer
Community Language Learning
Counsellor Paraphraser
Collaborator Whole Person
The Natural Approach
Actor Props User
Guesser Immerser
Suggestopedia
Auto-hypnotist Authority Figure
Relaxer True-Believer

30. The Communication Continuum
Non-communicative Communicative activities activities
No communicative desire
No communicative purpose
Form, not content
One language item only
Teacher intervention
Materials control
A desire to communicate
A specific communicative purpose
Content, not form
Variety of language
No teacher intervention
No materials control
Harmer, The Practice of English Language Teaching. Essex, Pearson Education. P85.

31. Communicative Language Teaching CLT Approach
What to teach
CLT stresses the importance of language functions instead of relying on grammar and vocabulary
use language appropriately in a variety of contexts for a variety of purposes
How to teach
Plentiful exposure to language in use
Plenty of opportunities for students to use the language to develop their knowledge and skills

32. Theory of language
 The functional view of language is the primary one behind the communicative method.
This means that we use language to communicate with each other and to express whatever it is we want to say. This theory of language means that our actual words serve the specific function or purpose of self-expression.
In this theory, the semantic and communicative dimensions of the language are more emphasised than the grammatical characteristics, although these are also included and important.

33. Theory of learning
Here are some principles that may be inferred using the CLT: 
Activities that involve real communication promote learning
Activities in which language is used for carrying out meaningful tasks promote learning
Language that is meaningful to the learner promotes learning
Activities – street directions, in a shop, greetings, restaurant menu, role plays

34. Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)
Began late 60s, early 70s in UK
Inviting
Apologising
Requesting
Giving directions
Introducing yourself
Language broken into Communicative functions
Reaction to AL and DL methods
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)
Building Communicative Competence was core
Ability to communicate in real social situations
The audiolingual method was rejected in the 50s and there was a change in teaching practices
An approach rather than a method: while there is a theory behind it, classroom applications are more open to individual interpretation.
Evolved in the late 60s and early 70s out of reaction to the AL and Direct Methods, particularly in Britain. (see Wilkins, Widdowson, Candlin for example).
Communicative Competence is seen as one’s awareness of the rules governing the appropriate use of language in social situations.
Interactional competence/awareness – a recent area of interest.
This gave rise to a functional approach to language teaching, which broke language into communicative functions (e.g. apologising, talking about ability) and for each of these there were corresponding exponents.
Grammar not taught overtly

35. In a nutshell…
‘an approach to language teaching that focuses on language functions and communicative competence* and not on grammatical structure’
Crystal (1987:417)
*communicative competence = ability to communicate

36. Function: Saying you are sorry…
Exponents*: (note different registers)
- Sorry
- I’m so sorry…
- I’m terribly sorry…
- I’m so terribly sorry, …
- I’m awfully sorry, please excuse me for…
*the words used to perform the function (e.g. of apologising)

37. Language Function Exponents
Greeting
Leave taking
Apologising
Requesting
Inviting
Advising
Hello, hi, how are you, how do you do, morning
Goodbye, good luck, see ya, later, take care
Sorry, so sorry, I’m sorry, I apologise, excuse me, oops!
May I, can I, will you, would you, if you wouldn’t mind
Please come, you are invited to, X and X request the pleasure of your company
If I were you, you should, you ought to, I suggest

38. Language Functions - considerations
Register/Genre:
a speaking/writing style appropriate to its context
i.e. academic, legal, medical, etc.
Formality – degrees of,
from casual conversation, personal chat, etc.
right through the spectrum to formal, official
IT IS VERY IMPORTANT TO TEACH LEARNERS THE APPROPRIACY OF VOCABULARY WHEN TEACHING NEW WORDS !

39. How learners use language
The objectives of CLT include:
students will learn to use language as a means of expression
students will use language as a means of expressing values and judgments
students will learn to express the functions that best meet their own communication needs.

40. Core principles Main focus on communication
Focus on ‘appropriacy’: using the right language for the situation (informal/neutral/formal)
Focus on learners having an active role
Core principles
Activities that promote meaningful communications (e.g. role-play)
Use of “Authentic Materials” (i.e. material from the real world, like films, articles from the newspaper, fliers, etc.)
The primary function was communication
Focus on formality, appropriacy
Use activities that promote meaningful communication
Reflects the needs of learners
Learners are more active
Use authentic materials

41. Textbook author Jack Richards talks about Communicative Language Teaching
A class focusing on communication

42. Basic Features of CLT
David Nunan (1991:279) lists five basic characteristics of Communicative Language Teaching:
(1) An emphasis on learning to communicate through interaction in the target language.
(2) The introduction of authentic texts into the learning situation.
(3) The provision of opportunities for learners to focus, not only on the language but also on the learning process itself.
(4) An enhancement of the learner's own personal experiences as important contributing elements to classroom learning.
(5) An attempt to link classroom language learning with language activation outside the classroom.

43. The CLT syllabus in the classroom
CLT often uses a functional-notional syllabus.
Yalden (1997) classified a number of communicative syllabus types of learning techniques and activities which
uses almost any activity that engages learners in authentic communication.
Littewood, however, distinguished two major activity types: 
functional communication activities: ones aimed at developing certain language skills and functions, but which involve communication, and
social interaction activities, such as conversation and discussion sessions, dialogues and role plays

44. CLT classroom activities
Used to contextualise language functions
Information gap activities
Language games
Various interaction patterns – pair/group
Role play
Simulation
Communicative tasks
Projects

45. PAIR WORK… A SAMPLE COMMUNICATIVE TASK
A and B in pairs
Complete the crossword
You mustn’t let your partner see your sheet
Give clues, explanations, but you can’t say the actual word.
Take turns.
Each person decides which clue s/he is going to give

46. Pair Work – Communicative Task
A and B
A has the full map B only has certain features/details
A must use words (communicate) to give B the other details of the map, so that at the end, B’s map should resemble A’s.
Key/legend to map – give class full details.

47. Guidelines for your peer teaching
Design, create or adapt a task for your class which involves an information gap.
This means that your students must communicate in order to provide each other with the missing information and complete the task together.
Instructions, demonstration, concept-checking understanding, handouts, students do the activity, feedback

48. Buzz group task
Each group will get one activity from Tandem Plus (1991)C. Read & A. Matthews, Longman
In groups look at the following for each activity:
Task objective – do the task yourself, first
Language focus – what language is being practised?
Instruction giving suggestions: think about what instructions you would give your non-English speaking students – what words and phrases would you need to give them in advance
Each individual makes notes as necessary.
New groups are formed using one member from each old group.
Share activity information and comment on task effectiveness.