1. AP Human Geography
Key Concept Review

2. Geography as Field of Study
“geo” - “the earth”
“graphein” - “to write”
Cartography - art & science of map-making
Developed early by Greeks, Romans, Chinese, Arabs

3. Names in Geography Eratosthenes - Greek scholar
Used geometry; accurately calculated circumference of earth
Ptolemy - Greek scholar
Developed global grid system forerunner to latitude & longitude
Idrisi - Arab geographer
Gathered maps, consulted mariners & travelers, went on scientific expeditions

4. Names in Geography
Immanuel Kant - defined geography as study of interrelated spatial patterns
Description & explanation of similarities & differences between regions
George Perkins Marsh
Focused on impact of human actions on natural environment
Carl Sauer - cultural landscapes
C.L.=product of interactions between humans & their environments

5. Types of Geography Physical Political
Human - Where are people? How are they alike and different? How do they interact? How do they change the natural landscapes, and how do they use them?
Urban
Environmental

6. Key Geographical Skills
Spatial Perspective - the way places and things are arranged and organized on earth’s surface
Absolute Location
Meridians, parallels, latitude, longitude
Greenwich, England
Relative Location

7. Use of Maps Reference Material - tool for storing information
Communications/education - often thematic - can explain spatial perspective to others - ex. Soil types
Contour Map - topography

8. Map Projections Globe - only accurate representation of earth
“All maps lie flat and all flat maps lie.”
distortion
Mercator - created for navigating ships across Atlantic Ocean; direction is true; distortion towards poles
Robinson - good projection for general use; distortion greatest at poles
Peters - keeps land masses equal in area; shapes distorted

9. Scale Size of unit studied - local, regional, global? Ex. drought
Map Scale
Mathematical relationship between size of area on map & actual size on surface of earth
Large scale maps = more details
1/24
Small scale maps = less details
1/24,000

10. Time Zones Use longitude to determine
180 degrees east and west of prime meridian, runs through Greenwich, England (set by international agreement)
15 degrees apart - 24 sections - 1 hour each
Encouraged by creation of railroads

11. “Place” =unique location of a geographic feature Place name - toponyms
Site -
Situation
Absolute location -
Pattern = linear vs. centralized vs. random vs. grid/rectilinear
Ordinance of 1785

12. Regions Formal/Uniform - similarities in physical or cultural features
Functional/Nodal - organized around nodes or cores
Core vs. periphery
Perceptual/Vernacular - places people believe to exist a part of their cultural identity

13. Space-Time Compression
Describes changes that rapid connections among places and regions have brought
First transportation and communication
Now television and computers
Impact of globalization

14. Geographic Technologies
GIS - Geographic Information System
computer system that can layer captured data
GPS - Global Positioning System
Uses series of satellites, tracking stations, and receivers to determine precise absolute locations on earth

15. Population
Unit Two

16. Demography Study of population
Population geography = number, composition, & distribution of human beings on earth’s surface
Follow growth and movement of population

17. Distribution, Density & Scale
Distribution - arrangement of locations on earth where people live
Dot maps
Population density - # of people in a given area of land
90% of people live north of equator
More than 1/2 of all people live on 5% of land and 9/10 on less than 20%
Most people live close to sea level
2/3 of world lives within 300 miles of ocean

18. Density Arithmetic (crude) Physiological population
Total number of people divided by total land area
Physiological population
Total number of people divided by arable land

19. Carrying Capacity
Number of people an area can support on a sustained basis
Farmers using irrigation & fertilizers support more people
Industrial societies import raw materials & export manufactured goods

20. Population Pyramids Represents a population’s age & sex composition
Factors affecting shape:
Health care
War
Availability of birth control
Cultural values
Level of economic development

21. Population Concentrations
2/3 of world pop in 4 regions:
East Asia - 1/5 of world
South Asia - 1/5 of world
Southeast Asia million
Europe - primarily urban

22. Race and Ethnicity
Race - category composed of people who share biologically transmitted traits that members of a society consider important
Ethnicity - less based on physical characteristics & emphasizes a shared cultural heritage, such as language, religion, and customs
Important because people tend to live in areas with people of same race or ethnicity

23. Population Growth & Decline
Little pop growth until mid-18th century
Agricultural or Neolithic Revolution
Until then, doubling rate was very long
Birth rates and death rates were high
1750 Industrial Revolution - England
Population explosion
Doubling time has dropped fast

24. Theories of Population Growth
Zero population growth movement - goal to level off world’s pop growth to ensure earth can sustain its inhabitants
Thomas Malthus
Food growing arithmetically vs. pop growing exponentially
Neo-Malthusians, The Population Bomb, Paul Ehrlich, drove international efforts using birth control and family planning

25. The Vocabulary of Population Theory
CBR
TFR
Demographic momentum
CDR
IMR
NIR
Life expectancy

26. Demographic Transition Theory
Stage 1 - pre-industrial, agrarian societies
High CBR and CDR
Stage 2 - industrialization
High CBR, lower CDR
By mid19th century - epidemiological revolution aka mortality revolution
Stage 3 - mature industrial economy
CBR drops, CDR low
Stage 4 - post-industrial economy
CBR continues to fall and CDR low
More women in workforce
Children expensive
Extensive education needed to fill post-industrial jobs

27. Population and Natural Hazards
Climate, drought, hurricanes, typhoons, tsunamis
Malthus’ “negative checks” - famine and disease
Globalization has increased spread of communicable diseases
AIDS
Asian bird flu
Pandemic = widespread epidemic
Swine flu

28. Population Policies Expansive policies - like Mao Zedong’s
Restrictive policies
China - Deng Xiaoping
One child policy
Female infanticide
India - democracy’s problems
Family planning
Rural families
Indira Gandhi

29. International Policy Efforts
1994 International Conference on Population and Development in Cairo, Egypt - agreed that improving the status of women is essential to population control
1995 UN Fourth World Conference in Beijing, China - agreed that women needed to control fertility allowing them to take advantage of educational and employment opportunities

30. Population Movement
Circulation = our short-term repetitive movements in our days
Migration = involves a permanent move to a new location, within a country or to another country
Demographic equation = summarizes population change over time in an area by combining natural change (death rate subtracted from birth rate) and the net migration
Emigration - migration FROM a location
Immigration - migration TO a location

31. Ravenstein’s Laws of Migration
British demographer
Wrote 11 migration laws
Most immigrants move short distance
Distance decay - decline of activity or function with increasing distance from point of origin
Step migration - long-distance migration done in stages
Intervening opportunities - those planning to go long distances find other opportunities before reaching final destination

32. Ravenstein’s Laws of Migration
Migrants moving longer distances tend to choose cities as destinations
Each migration flow produces a counter-flow; ex. When one group moves in to neighborhood, another group moves in
Families less likely to make international moves; single males more likely

33. Gravity Model
Inverse relationship between the volume of migration and the distance between source and destination
A large city has a greater gravitational pull than a small one, but it still tends to pull people that live closer rather than farther away

34. Reasons for Migration Push factor = encourages people to move
Pull factor = attracts people to a region

35. Major Migrations at Different Scales
Asia, Latin America and Africa have net out-migration
North America. Europe, and Oceania jave net in-migration
Largest flows are:
Asia to Europe
Asia to North America
South America to North America

36. U.S. Immigration Patterns
Three Main Eras:
Initial settlement of colonies
Emigration from Europe
Immigration since 1945

37. Initial Settlement of Colonies
About 1 million Europeans came before 1776
Another 1 million by 1840
Majority from Britain
Others from Netherlands, Sweden, France, Germany, Iberian Peninsula
18th century - 400,000 African slaves brought over

38. Emigration from Europe
19th-20th century migration one of most significant in history
75 million departed for Americas between
Largest number to USA
Three waves:
1840s-1850s - 2 largest groups Irish & Germans
Late 1800s s-1890s - 75% NW Europe; Germans & Irish continued & Scandinavians; pull factor Industrial Revolution
Early 1900s- peak levels 1910; many from Southern and Eastern Europe, esp. Italy, Russia, Austria-Hungary

39. Immigration since 1945
Restrictions against Asians lifted in 1960s: China, Philippines, India, Vietnam
Many came as refugees
Many went to Canada
Another major source is Latin America with Mexico topping 8 million
1986 Immigration Reform and Control Act - government issued visas to several hundred thousand people who had previously entered illegally

40. Intraregional Migrations
Within USA, African-Americans began migrating from South to North during WWI and in the 1940s; 1970s countertrend of African Americans moving back South
Dislocation due to ethnic strife, war, or natural disasters
South Asia - Afghanistan - Pakistan
Southeast Asia - Vietnam - Cambodia
Balkans - collapse of Yugoslavia
Sub-Saharan Africa - Rwanda, Sudan

41. Migration Selectivity
=Tendency for certain types of people to move influenced by
1. Age - young people, and their children
2. Education - higher levels of education more likely to migrate long distances; follow one’s career in professions; danger of brain drains
3. Kinship and friendship ties - chain migration; ethnic neighborhoods such as “Little Italies” and “Chinatowns”

42. Short Term Circulation & Activity Space
Activity Space - area in which an individual moves about as he or she pursues regular, day-to-day activities
Factors affecting activity spaces:
Age group - younger by foot/bicycle; older by car; retired activity space shrinks
Ability to travel - suburbs vs. city; LDC vs. MDC; income level
Opportunities to travel - self-sufficient families, poverty, & physical isolation reduce awareness space

43. Space-Time Prism
All people live within a space-time prism that sets the limits for their activities
They have only so much time to be mobile and their space is limited by their ability to move

44. Cultural Patterns and Processes
Unit Three

45. Basic Definitions:
Cultural landscape - modification of the natural landscape by human activities
Cultural geography - transformation of the land and ways that humans interact with the environment
Cultural ecology - studies relationship between natural environment and culture

46. Schools of Thought in Cultural Geography
Environmental determinism - physical environment actively shapes cultures so that human responses are almost completely molded by environment
Possibilism - cultural heritage is at least as important as physical environment in shaping human behavior
Environmental perception - emphasizes importance of human perception of environment rather than actual character of the land; shaped by culture
Cultural determinism - human culture ultimately more important than physical environment in shaping human actions

47. Concepts of Culture
Culture = mix of values, beliefs, behaviors, & material objects that together form a people’s way of life
Non-material culture = abstract concepts of values, beliefs, behaviors
Values = culturally-defined standards that guide way people assess desirability, goodness and beauty & serve as guidelines for moral living
Beliefs = specific statements people hold to be true, almost always based on values
Material Culture = includes wide range of concrete human creations = artifacts

48. Cultural Hearths
Areas where civilizations first began that radiated the customs, innovations, and ideologies that culturally transformed the world
Developed in SW Asia, North Africa, South Asia, East Asia - river valleys

49. Cultural Diffusion Expansion diffusion Relocation diffusion
Contagious diffusion
Hierarchical diffusion
Stimulus diffusion
Relocation diffusion

50. Acculturation
Assimilation
Transculturation
Ethnocentrism
Cultural relativism
Syncretism

51. Language = key to culture
=systematic means of communicating ideas and feelings through the use of signs, gestures, marks, or vocal sounds
Also allows for continuity of culture (cultural transmission)
Writing invented 5000 years ago
Most people illiterate until 20th century

52. Languages Currently between 5000-6000 languages
10 languages spoken by 100+ million people: Spanish, Portuguese, Russian, German, Mandarin and Wu Chinese, English, Hindi, Bengali, Arabic, and Japanese
Linguistic fragmentation = many languages spoken especially by a relatively small number of people; ex. Eastern Europe

53. Language Families
Languages usually grouped into families with a shared, fairly distant origin
Indo-European family - languages spoken by half the world’s people, English most widely used; thought to be rooted in Black Sea area
Other families = Afro-Asiatic, Niger-Congo, Dravidian, American Indian

54. Standard languages - recognized by govt and intellectual elite as norm for use in schools, govt, media, & other aspects of public life
Official languages - language endorsed & recognized by govt as one that everyone should know and use
Dialects - regional variants of a standard language
Isoglosses - boundaries within which words are spoken

55. Bilingualism - ability to communicate in 2 languages
Multilingualism - ability to communicate in more than 2 languages
Pidgin - amalgamation of languages that borrows words from several
Creole - when a pidgin becomes the first language of a group of speakers
Lingua franca - established language that comes to be spoken & understood over a large area
Toponymy - study of place names
“town”, “ton”, “burgh”, or “ville” = town

56. Extinct Languages Ex. Gothic, died out in 16th century
Some organizations try to preserve endangered languages like European Union’s Bureau of Lesser Used Languages; ex. Welsh in Wales, Quecha in Peru

57. Religion Varies in its cultural influence
Distinguished from other belief systems by emphasis on the sacred and divine
Explains anything that surpasses the limits of human knowledge
Affected most societies in history but today has been replaced in some places by new ideas
Humanism - ability of humans to guide their own lives
Marxism - communism

58. Religions
Universalizing Religions = Christianity, Islam, Buddhism; 60% of world’s religions
Ethnic Religions = appeal primarily to one group of people living in one place; 24% of world’s religions
16% of world identifies with no religion

59. Divisions within religion
Branches - large, basic divisions within religion
Denominations - divisions of branches that unite local groups in a single administrative body
Sects - relatively small groups that do not affiliate with the more mainstream denominations

60. Christianity 2 billion followers Most widespread distribution
Predominant religion in North & South America, Europe & Australia
3 major branches:
Roman Catholic - 50%
Protestant - 25%
Eastern Orthodox - 10%
Remaining 15% cannot be categorized into the 3 main branches

61. Religion in the United States
Over 50% Protestant
25% Catholic
2% Jewish
What about the Mormons?

62. Islam 1.3 billion adherents
Predominant in Middle East from North Africa to Central Asia
About half of world’s Muslims live in Indonesia, Pakistan, Bangladesh and India
Growing faster than Christianity
7-10 million Muslims in USA
Youngest of world religions

63. Divisions of Islam
Sunni - 83% of Muslims; Indonesia largest concentration
Shiite - 16% of Muslims; concentrated in Iran, Pakistan, Iraq, Turkey, Azerbaijan, Afghanistan and Yemen
Split occurred over the rightful successor of Muhammad

64. Buddhism 365 million followers Began on Indian subcontinent
Diffused through Silk Road and water routes across Indian Ocean to East and Southeast Asia

65. 3 Main Branches of Buddhism
Mahayana - 56% - “Big Wheel” - East Asia
Theraveda - 38% - stricter adherence to Buddha’s teachings - Southeast Asia
Tantrayana - 6% - Tibet and Mongolia
Accurate count difficult because eastern religions don’t require followers to identify with one religion

66. Other Universalizing Religions
Sikhism - 21 million in Punjab region of India; combo Hinduism and Islam; founder Guru Nanak
Baha’i - founded in 1844, most in Iran, viewed by some Shiite Muslims as heretics, believe in a different prophet

67. Ethnic Religions Hinduism Confucianism Daoism Shintoism Judaism
Shamanism

68. Spatial Impact
Large cities - tallest, most centralized & elaborate buildings are often religious structures
Churches, mosques, temples, synagogues, pagodas
Bodhi trees in Buddhist areas
How religions dispose of the dead

69. Taboo?
- defined as:
a restriction on behavior imposed by a social custom.
COMMON TABOO ITEMS
FOODS, RELATIONSHIPS, LANGUAGE, OBSCENITY, ETC..
RESEARCH- TABOO’S

70. Why Is Folk Culture Clustered?
Folk housing and the environment
Housing = a reflection of cultural heritage, current fashion, function, and the physical environment
most common building materials = wood &brick
Minor differences in the environment can produce very different house styles

71. Hearths of House Types
Figure 4-12

72. U.S. House Types (1945–1990)
Figure 4-16

73. House Types in Four Western Chinese Communities
Figure 4-9

74. Popular & Folk Culture
Folk = traditionally practiced by small, homogeneous groups living in isolated rural areas
Popular = found in large heterogeneous societies that are bonded by a common culture despite the many differences among the people that share it

75. Folk Culture Controlled by tradition Resistant to change
Self-sufficient
Example - Amish
Relatively isolated
Usually agricultural with limited technology
Ex. Dutch wearing wooden shoes to adapt to working in wet fields below sea level
Ex. Hindu taboos against eating beef
Housing styles - based on environment materials

76. Why Is Folk Culture Clustered?
Folk housing and the environment
Housing = a reflection of cultural heritage, current fashion, function, and the physical environment
most common building materials = wood &brick
Minor differences in the environment can produce very different house styles

77. Hearths of House Types
Figure 4-12

78. U.S. House Types (1945–1990)
Figure 4-16

79. House Types in Four Western Chinese Communities
Figure 4-9

80. Folk Music
North American folk music began as immigrants carried their songs to the New World but became Americanized and then new songs about American experiences
Regions
Northern song section
Southern and Appalachian song area
Western song area
Black Song Style Family

81. Popular Culture Primarily urban based
General mass of people conforming to and then abandoning ever-changing cultural trends
Breeds homogeneity
Pop culture takes on a national character
Globalization of pop culture has caused resentment

82. Environmental impact of popular culture
Uniform landscapes - fast food restaurants, chain hotels, gas stations, convenience stores; designed so residents and visitors immediately recognize purpose of building or name of company
Increased demand for natural resources - fads demand animal skins; consumption of food not efficient to produce (ex. 1 lb beef requires animal consuming 10 lbs grain; ratio for chicken 1 to 3)
Pollution - high volume of wastes

83. Cultural Landscape = Cultural Identity
Landscapes & values = Native Americans vs. Europeans
Landscapes & identity = people express culture by transforming elements into symbols like flags, slogans, religious icons, landscaping and house styles
Can clash like Muslim practice of never depicting Allah or Muhammad in drawings clashed with western freedom of press with Danish cartoon in 2005
Symbolic landscapes = all landscapes are symbolic - signs and images convey messages