1. Chapter 7: Thinking, Language & Intelligence

2. Learning Outcomes
Define thinking and the various concepts involved in thinking.
Describe how language develops.

3. Learning Outcomes
Identify the concept of intelligence and the techniques used to measure intelligence.
Describe the controversy surrounding intelligence testing.

4. Thinking
LO1 Define thinking and the various concepts involved in thinking.

5. Thinking What is thinking? Thinking is conscious
Attending to information,
Representing it mentally,
Reasoning about it
Making judgments and decisions about it
Thinking is conscious
cognition – mental activity involved in understanding, processing, and communicating information
thinking – paying attention to information, mentally representing it, reasoning about it, and making decisions about it

6. Concepts
Mental categories used to group objects, relations, events, abstractions or qualities that have common properties
Hierarchies
Used to organize concepts
concept – a mental category that is used to class together objects, relations, events, abstractions, ideas, or qualities that have common properties

7. Organization of Concepts into Hierarchies
Figure 7.1: Organization of Concepts into Hierarchies - People may have a concept, “objects that store information.” This concept may include concepts such as iPod, DVD, and printed matter. Within the concept of printed matter, people may include newspapers, college textbooks (certainly the most important object that stores information!), novels, and catalogs. The concept of newspaper may include one’s school newspaper and various commercial newspapers.

8. Concepts Prototypes Good examples of a category of concept
Exemplars
Positive and Negative instances
Overextension
prototype – a concept of a category of objects or events that serves as a good example of the category
exemplar – a specific example

9. What are the next two letters in this series?
O T T F F S S E _ _
The correct answer is N and T. Each of the letters stands for the first letter in a number. O = One, T = Two, T = Three, F = Four, and so on. The final letters (and numbers!) in the series would be N = Nine and T = Ten.

10. Problem Solving Features of understanding a problem
Parts relate to one another in a meaningful way
Elements of mental representation correspond to the elements of the problem in outer world
Storehouse of background knowledge

11. Algorithms Specific procedure for solving a type of problem
Yield correct answers if the right formula is used
Systematic random search
Each possible solution is tested according to a particular set of rules
algorithm – a systematic procedure for solving a problem that works invariably when it is correctly applied
systematic random search – an algorithm for solving problems in which each possible solution is tested according to a particular set of rules

12. Heuristic Shortcuts; mental rules of thumb used to solve a problem
Means-end analysis
Evaluate and reduce difference between the current situation and goal
Analogies
Refer to a previous problem to solve a new problem
heuristic – rules of thumb that help us simplify and solve problems
means-end analysis – a heuristic device in which we try to solve a problem by evaluating the difference between the current situation and the goal

13. What rule governs this list of numbers?
8, 5, 4, 9, 1, 7, 6, 3, 2, 0
The correct answer is that they are in alphabetical order by first letter. Solving this problem may have been influenced by the solution of the last problem presented – using the analogy heuristic.

14. Factors that Affect Problem Solving
Expertise
Experts use parallel processing; novices use serial processing
Mental Sets
Tendency to use an approach that was previously successful with similar problem
Insight
Sudden perception permitting the solution
mental set – the tendency to respond to a new problem with an approach that was successfully used with similar problems
insight – in Gestalt psychology, a sudden perception of relationships among elements of the “perceptual field,” permitting the solution of a problem

15. Truth or Fiction? Only humans can use insight to solve problems.
Truth or Fiction? Only humans can use insight to solve problems. FICTION The textbook gives an example of N.R.F. Maier’s rat, Bismarck using insight.

16. Truth or Fiction? Only humans can use insight to solve problems.
Truth or Fiction? Only humans can use insight to solve problems. FICTION The textbook gives an example of N.R.F. Maier’s rat, Bismarck using insight.

17. Bismarck Uses a Cognitive Map to Claim His Just Desserts
Figure 7.2: Bismarck Uses a Cognitive Map to Claim His Just Desserts - Bismarck has learned to reach dinner by climbing ladder A. But now the food goal (F) is blocked by a wire-mesh barrier B. Bismarck washes his face for a while, but then, in an apparent flash of insight, he runs back down ladder A and up new ladder N to reach the goal.

18. Factors that Affect Problem Solving
Incubation
Stand back from a problem for a while; solution may come in a flash of insight
Functional Fixedness
Tendency to think of an object in terms of its familiar function
incubation – in problem solving, a hypothetical process that sometimes occurs when we stand back from a frustrating problem for a while and the solution “suddenly” appears
functional fixedness – tendency to view an object in terms of its name or familiar usage

19. Heuristics in Decision Making
Representativeness heuristic
Make judgments about events according to the population of events that they appear to represent
Availability heuristic
Estimate of probability is based on examples of relevant events
representativeness heuristic – a decision-making heuristic in which people make judgments about samples according to the populations they appear to represent
availability heuristic – a decision-making heuristic in which our estimates of frequency or probability of events are based on how easy it is to find examples

20. Heuristics in Decision Making
Anchoring and adjustment heuristic
First estimate serves as an anchor
With new information we make adjustments but remain in the proximity of the first estimate
anchoring and adjustment heuristic – a decision-making heuristic in which a presumption or first estimate serves as a cognitive anchor; as we receive additional information, we make adjustments but tend to remain in the proximity of the anchor

21. Factors that Affect Decision Making
Framing effect
Context in which information is presented affects decision making
Overconfidence
Unaware of flimsiness of assumptions
Work to bring about results that fit our judgments
Forget information counter to our judgment
Self-fulfilling prophecies
framing effect – the influence of wording , or the context in which information is presented, on decision making

22. Language
LO2 Describe how language develops.

23. Communication by Nonhumans
African Grey Parrots
Apes
Genetically show some ability to use language
Use of symbols to communicate
The textbook refers to the African Grey parrots; here is a video from CNN with Dr. Irene Pepperberg in an interview after the passing of the famous African Grey parrot, Alex. URL:

24. Language
Communication of information by means of symbols arranged according to rules of grammar
language – the communication of information by means of symbols arranged according to rules of grammar

25. Properties of Language
Semanticity
Sounds or signs of a language have meaning
Infinite creativity
Capacity to create rather than imitate sentences
Displacement
Capacity to communicate in another time or place
semanticity – meaning; the quality of language in which words are used as symbols for objects, events, or ideas
infinite creativity – the capacity to combine words into original sentences
displacement – the quality of language that permits one to communicate information about objects and events in another time and place

26. Language and Cognition
Language is not necessary for thinking
Concepts can be understood without knowing the word for the concept

27. Language and Culture Linguistic-relativity hypothesis
Language structures the way we perceive the world
Criticism of linguistic-relativity hypothesis
Images and abstract logical propositions may be used as units of thought
Range of concepts represent priority of the language not cognitive limitation
linguistic-relativity hypothesis – the view that language structures the way in which we view the world

28. Language Development Prelinguistic vocalizations
Crying, cooing, babbling
All children babble the same sounds (even deaf children)
By 9 – 10 months foreign sounds are dropped
First word is spoken within the range of 8 and 18 months

29. Truth or Fiction? Crying is a child’s first use of language.
Truth or Fiction? Crying is a child’s first use of language. FICTION Crying does not represent language; it is a prelinguistic event.

30. Truth or Fiction? Crying is a child’s first use of language. FICTION!
Truth or Fiction? Crying is a child’s first use of language. FICTION Crying does not represent language; it is a prelinguistic event.

31. Development of Grammar
Holophrase
Single words that express complex meanings
Telegraphic speech
Two-word sentences
Grammatically correct
Sequence of emergence of various two-word sentences is universal
holophrase – a single word used to express complex meanings

32. Development of Grammar
Overregulation
Application of regular grammatical rules to irregular verbs and nouns
Between 7- to 9-years
Children realize words can have more than one meaning
overregulation – the application of regular grammatical rules for forming inflections (e.g., past tense and plurals) to irregular verbs and nouns

33. Truth or Fiction?
Young children say things like “Daddy goed away” and “Mommy sitted down” because they do understand rules of grammar.
Truth or Fiction? Young children say things like “Daddy goed away” and “Mommy sitted down” because the do understand rules of grammar. TRUE These are examples of overregulation.

34. Truth or Fiction?
Young children say things like “Daddy goed away” and “Mommy sitted down” because they do understand rules of grammar.
TRUE!
Truth or Fiction? Young children say things like “Daddy goed away” and “Mommy sitted down” because the do understand rules of grammar. TRUE These are examples of overregulation.

35. Nature and Nurture in Language Development
Learning Theory
Imitation and reinforcement
Social cognitive perspective
Parent serve as models

36. Nature and Nurture in Language Development
Infant-directed speech
slower and higher pitched
brief with key words at end of sentence
focus on naming objects
speak for child
Children prefer IDS and it encourages vocalization

37. Nature and Nurture in Language Development
Nativist Approach
Innate factors cause children to attend to and perceive language in certain ways

38. Nativist Approach to Language Development
Psycholinguistic theory
Language acquisition involves interaction of environmental influences and inborn tendency to acquire language
Language acquisition device (LAD)
Represents the inborn tendency
Prepares nervous system to learn grammar
Universal grammar
psycholinguistic theory the view that language learning involves an interaction between environmental factors and an inborn tendency to acquire language
language acquisition device (LAD) – in psycholinguistic theory, neural “prewiring” that facilitates the child’s learning of grammar

39. Intelligence
LO3 Identify the concept of intelligence and the techniques used to measure intelligence

40. Intelligence
The underlying ability to understand the world and cope with its challenges
Tied to achievements such as academic performance and occupational status
intelligence – a general mental capability that involves the ability to reason, plan, solve problems, think abstractly, comprehend complex ideas, learn quickly, and learn from experience

41. Factor Theories of Intelligence
Intelligence is made up of a number of mental abilities (factors)
Spearman’s g factor
General intelligence
s factor represents specific intelligence
Thurstone’s nine specific factors
Primary mental abilities
g – Spearman’s symbol for general intelligence, which he believed underlay more specific abilities
s – Spearman’s symbol for specific factors, or s factors, which he believed accounted for individual abilities
primary mental abilities – according to Thurstone, the basic abilities that make up intelligence; examples include word fluency and numerical ability

42. Primary Mental Abilities, According to Thurstone

43. Theory of Multiple Intelligences
Howard Gardner
Number of different intelligences
Criticism – do all represent intelligence or talent?
Multiple intelligences include language ability, logical-mathematical, bodily-kinesthetic, musical, spatial-relations, interpersonal, intrapersonal, existential, naturalist

44. Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
Robert Sternberg
Analytical
Academic ability
Creative
Ability to cope with novel situations and generate multiple solutions to problems
Practical
“Street smarts”

45. Sternberg’s Theory of Intelligence
Figure 7.3: Sternberg’s Theory of Intelligence - According to Robert Sternberg, there are three types of intelligence: analytical (academic ability), creative, and practical (“street smarts”). Psychologists discuss the relationships between intelligence and creativity, but within Sternberg’s model, creativity is a type of intellectual functioning.

46. Truth or Fiction? “Street smarts” are a sign of intelligence.
Truth or Fiction? “Street smarts” are a sign of intelligence. TRUE, at least according to Aristotle and Sternberg!

47. Truth or Fiction? “Street smarts” are a sign of intelligence. TRUE!
Truth or Fiction? “Street smarts” are a sign of intelligence. TRUE, at least according to Aristotle and Sternberg!

48. Emotional Intelligence
Intrapersonal and interpersonal skills
Self-insight and self-control
Allows for coping with stress, depression, and aggressive behavior

49. Creativity and Intelligence
Creative people
Do things that are novel and useful
Take risks
Defy limits
Appreciate art and music
Relationship between intelligence test scores and standard measures of creativity is only moderate.
creativity – the ability to generate novel and useful solutions to problems

50. Truth or Fiction? Creative people are highly intelligent.
Highly intelligent people are creative.
Truth or Fiction? Creative people are highly intelligent. Highly intelligent people are creative. DEPENDS, The answer depends on definitions. If creativity is an aspect of intelligence, then intelligence and creativity overlap. If you think of intelligence as more closely related to academic ability, then a highly intelligent person is not always creative or a highly creative person intelligent. Relationship between intelligence test scores and standard measure of creativity is only moderate.

51. Truth or Fiction? Creative people are highly intelligent.
Highly intelligent people are creative.
DEPENDS!
Truth or Fiction? Creative people are highly intelligent. Highly intelligent people are creative. DEPENDS, The answer depends on definitions. If creativity is an aspect of intelligence, then intelligence and creativity overlap. If you think of intelligence as more closely related to academic ability, then a highly intelligent person is not always creative or a highly creative person intelligent. Relationship between intelligence test scores and standard measure of creativity is only moderate.

52. Convergent and Divergent Thinking
Convergent thinking
Thought is limited to present facts
Best used in intelligence testing
Divergent thinking
Freely associate to elements of problem
Best used in measuring creativity
convergent thinking – a thought process that narrows in on the single best solution to a problem
divergent thinking – a thought process that attempts to generate multiple solutions to problems

53. Measurement of Intelligence
Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale (SBIS)
Binet-Simon - produced child’s mental age
SBIS adapted for intelligence quotient (IQ)
IQ reflects relationship between mental and actual age
mental age (MA) – the accumulated months of credit that a person earns on the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale
intelligence quotient (IQ) – (a) Originally, a ratio obtained by dividing a child’s score (or mental age) on an intelligence test by chronological age. (b) Generally, a score on an intelligence test

54. Items Similar to Those on the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale

55. Truth or Fiction?
Two children can answer exactly the same items on an intelligence test correctly, yet one child can be above average in IQ, and the other can be below.
Truth or Fiction? Two children can answer exactly the same items on an intelligence test correctly, yet one child can be above average in IQ, and the other can be below. True, if the ages of the children differ.

56. Truth or Fiction?
Two children can answer exactly the same items on an intelligence test correctly, yet one child can be above average in IQ, and the other can be below.
TRUE!
Truth or Fiction? Two children can answer exactly the same items on an intelligence test correctly, yet one child can be above average in IQ, and the other can be below. True, if the ages of the children differ.

57. Measurement of Intelligence
Wechsler Scales
Separate subscales
Verbal and performance tasks
Deviation IQ
Group Tests

58. Items Similar to Those on the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale
Figure 7.4: Items Similar to Those on the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale.

59. Reliability and Validity of Intelligence Tests
SBIS and Wechsler scales
Reliable (test-retest reliability)
Validity – correlate moderately to highly with variables they are supposed to predict

60. Approximate Distribution of IQ Scores
Figure 7.5: Approximate Distribution of IQ Scores.

61. Differences in Intellectual Functioning
Socioeconomic and Ethnic Differences
Consideration of social class
Lower-class U.S. children score 10 – 15 IQ points lower than middle- and upper-class
Consideration of ethnicity
Impact of social class
Asian Americans more likely to graduate high school and complete college

62. Truth or Fiction?
Intelligence tests measure many things other than intelligence.
Truth or Fiction? Intelligence tests measure many things other than intelligence. True Some psychologists and social critics argue that intelligence tests measure many things other than intelligence—including familiarity with the dominant middle-class culture in the United States and motivation to perform well.

63. Truth or Fiction?
Intelligence tests measure many things other than intelligence.
TRUE!
Truth or Fiction? Intelligence tests measure many things other than intelligence. True Some psychologists and social critics argue that intelligence tests measure many things other than intelligence—including familiarity with the dominant middle-class culture in the United States and motivation to perform well.

64. Do Intelligence Tests Contain Cultural Biases?
Tests may measure familiarity with dominant middle-class culture
Culture-free Intelligence Tests
Cattell's Culture-Fair Intelligence Test
Goodenough’s Draw-A-Person test
European American children outperform African American children on “culture-free” test

65. Sample Items from Cattell’s Culture-Fair Intelligence Test
Figure 7.6: Sample Items from Cattell’s Culture-Fair Intelligence Test.

66. Gender Differences in Intelligence Tests
Intelligence tests do not show overall differences in cognitive ability
Girls superior to boys in verbal ability
Boys excel in visual-spatial ability
Boys tend to score higher on math tests
Group scores represent greater variation within the group than between the groups

67. Women Flood Professions Once Populated Almost Exclusively by Men
Figure 7.7: Women Flood Professions Once Populated Almost Exclusively by Men.

68. Nature and Nurture in Intelligence
LO4 Describe the controversy surrounding intelligence testing.

69. Genetic Influences on Intelligence
Kinship studies
IQ scores of identical (MZ) twins are more alike than for any other pairs
Moderate correlations between fraternal (DZ) twins, siblings and parents and their children
Weak correlations between children and their foster parents and between cousins

70. Genetic Influences on Intelligence
Twin Studies
IQ scores of MZ twins is higher than DZ twins
DZ twin pairs are similar as between other siblings
IQ scores of MZ twins reared together have higher correlation than MZ twins reared apart
Being reared together is related to IQ similarities

71. Genetic Influences on Intelligence
Adoption Studies
Stronger relationship between IQ scores of adopted children and their biological parents than between children and adoptive parents

72. Heritability of Intelligence
Heritability is between 40% and 60%
About half the difference between your IQ score and the IQ scores of other people can be explained by heredity
Environment is also important
Being reared together is related to IQ similarities
heritability – the degree to which the variations in a trait from one person to another can be attributed to, or explained by, genetic factors

73. Findings of Studies of the Relationship between IQ Scores and Heredity
[Insert Figure 7.8]
Figure 7.8: Findings of Studies of the Relationship between IQ Scores and Heredity. The data represent a composite of several studies. By and large, correlations are higher between people who are more closely related, yet people who are reared together have more similar IQ scores than people who are reared apart. Such findings suggest that both genetic and environmental factors contribute to IQ scores.

74. Environmental Influences on Intelligence
Home Environment
Important predictor of IQ scores – ages 3 to 8
Education
Enriched early environments

75. The Complex Web of Factors That Affect Intellectual Functioning
Figure 7.9 The Complex Web of Factors That Affect Intellectual Functioning. Intellectual functioning appears to be influenced by the interaction of genetic factors, health, personality, and sociocultural factors.

76. The Flynn Effect
Western world – IQ scores rose substantially between 1947 and 2002
Impact of social and cultural factors
Changes also demonstrated in subpopulations
Educational gap between races in U.S. is narrowing