1. Temperature

2. Temperature Average kinetic energy of a system
Arguably the most important aspect of the physical environment for life
Influences geographic distributions of species
Influences interspecific competition

3. For most living, active animals:
Temperature Ranges
For most living, active animals:
-2 °C (polar aquatic species) to 50 ° C (desert spp.)
Few species can survive entire range

4. Terminology of Thermal Biology
Various terms used to describe thermal biology of animals:
Cold-blooded vs. Warm-blooded
Poikilothermic vs Homeothermic
Ectothermic vs. Endothermic

5. Cold-blooded vs. Warm-blooded
Description of relative body temperature
“Warm-blooded” = high body temperature
Mammals and birds
“Cold-blooded” = low body temperature
Reptiles, amphibians, fish, invertebrates
Tend to be inaccurate
Many “cold-blooded” animals have high body temperatures (e.g. desert reptiles and invertebrates)
Many “warm-blooded” animals may have low body temperatures (e.g. hibernating mammals)

6. Homeothermic vs. Poikilothermic
Description of variation in body temperature
Homeothermic – body temp. strictly regulated
Mammals and birds
Poikilothermic – body temp. may fluctuate widely
“Lower” vertebrates and invertebrates
Problems
Many “poikilotherms” normally have stable body temperatures under natural conditions
Some “homeotherms” have broad seasonal changes in body temperature (hibernation, etc.)

7. Endothermic vs. Ectothermic
Description of heat production
Endothermic – most body heat is physiologically generated (muscle contraction)
Ectothermic – most body heat derived from the environment (solar radiation, etc.)
Problems
Some animals generate lots of heat but do not use it to regulate body temperature

8. Determinants of Body Temperature
Temperature depends on the amount of heat (calories) contained per unit mass tissue
# calories contained per °C determined by the heat capacity of the tissues (~ 0.8 cal*°C-1*g-1)
Amount of heat in body depends on…
Rate of heat production
Rate of external heat gain
Rate of heat loss to the environment
Body heat = heat produced + heat transferred

9. Heat Transfer Three ways of transferring heat
Conduction – transfer of heat between objects in contact with one another
Radiation – transfer of heat by electromagnetic radiation
Evaporation – transfer of heat to water as it changes from liquid to gaseous phase

10. Conduction Transfer of kinetic energy between two objects in contact
Heat moves from warmer region to cooler region
Rate of transfer:
H = rate of heat transfer per cross sectional area
k = thermal conductivity of the conductor
d = distance between two points
T1 and T2 = temperature at points 1 and 2
H = k ×
T1 – T2 X

11. Conduction and Convection
Conduction rate is increased by convection
Movement of gas or liquid over the surface of transfer
Continuous replacement of fluid maximizes temperature difference and facilitates heat transfer

12. Radiation Transfer of heat via electromagnetic emission
Objects do not require contact
Stefan-Boltzmann law:
H = εσTs4
H = rate of heat exchange per unit area
ε = emissivity (wavelengths at which EM radiation is emitted,~3-4 μm for most objects on earth)
σ = Stefan-Boltzmann constant
Ts = surface temperature of the object
Net heat exchange is from the object with the higher Ts to the one with the lower Ts

13. Evaporation Only means by which heat can be lost to a hot environment
Vaporization of water requires heat
~ 2400 kJ per g water absorbed from the surface of the animal
Evaporative cooling used to dissipate heat
Sweating, panting

14. Heat Storage
Animals can store heat in their bodies by moderating heat transfer to the environment
Factors Affecting Heat Transfer
Surface Area/Volume Ratio
Larger animals have proportionately lower heat flux
Temperature Gradient
Between body and environment
Lower gradient, slower heat transfer
Specific Heat Conductance
Insulation – reduces heat conductance

15. Total Body Heat Htotal = Hv + Hc + Hr + He + Hs
Hv = heat produced by metabolism (+)
Hc = heat loss/gain by conduction and convection (+/-)
Hr = heat transfer via radiation (+/-)
He = heat loss by evaporation (-)
Hs = stored heat (+)

16. Effects of Body Temperature Change
Temperature affects the rate of chemical reactions
Affects chemical reactions needed to maintain homeostasis
Too low
metabolism not fast enough to maintain homeostasis
Too high
reactions in metabolic pathways uncouple, enzymes denature, etc.

17. Changes in Metabolism with Body Temperature
Temperature Coefficient (Q10) – factorial increase in a rate with a 10 °C increase in temperature
Q10 = (R2/R1) 10/T2-T1
R2 and R1
reaction rates at temperatures T2 and T1 respectively
If T2 and T1 differ by 10 °C, Q10 = (R2/R1)
Typical Q10 values for biological rates (metabolic rate, etc) range from 2 to 3 (doubling or tripling of rate)

18. Changes in Metabolism with Temperature
Q10 values often change across a range of temperatures
Performance curves
Initial large increase, followed by smaller increases

19. Light

20. Effects of Artificial Light: - Orientation and Attraction/Repulsion - Reproduction - Communication - Competition - Predation - Ecosystem disruption

21. Complex Ecosystem

22. Effects of Artificial Light
Living things respond in a variety of ways to impacts on the environment. Some examples of the effect of light at night are well known - moths gathering around a street lamp, or the harvesting of fish with spotlights. These changes can have a dramatic effect on humans - as for example the negative impact of light at night on the salmon fishery.

23. Terrestrial Mammals

24. Terrestrial Mammals Possible effects:
- disruption of foraging behaviour
- increased risk of predation
- disruption of biological clocks, affecting mating success and group-mediated anti-predator vigilance
- increased road deaths due to blinding and disorientation
- disruption of dispersal movements and corridors
Increased highway lighting is not effective in reducing deer-car collisions.

25. Terrestrial Mammals
Many mammals (small carnivores, rodents) are nocturnal. These are affected by light at night.
Night-adapted animals have a rod-based retina, which
provides the necessary sensitivity for night vision but blinds the animal in bright light. Light (moonlight) increases the risk of predation, so small mammals stay hidden.
A light level of 0.2 lux was sufficient to suppress melatonin production in rats and enhance tumor production.

26. Bats

27. Bats
Insects are attracted to lights, bats then gather in the lights to feed on these insects.
Moths evade bats by detecting their ultrasound, but moths do not use this warning in bright light, so they are an easy target.

28. Bats pipistrelle bats, who feed at streetlights
In several mountain valleys in switzerland, the lesser horseshoe bat became locally extinct after streetlights were installed. They were replaced by
pipistrelle bats, who feed at streetlights

29. Migrating Birds

30. Migrating Birds

31. Migrating Birds
Migrating birds tend to move toward light and are reluctant to leave the
lighted area.
- delays migration
- mortality due to exhaustion and collision with structures.
Floodlit structures attract and kill birds, particularly in misty weather.

32. Sea Turtles

33. Sea Turtles
Hatching turtles are disoriented by artificial light, causing them to go inland instead of to the sea. Artificial light also aids predation of the hatchlings.
A number of measures have been taken with some success. These include shielding of luminaires, reducing light output, installing motion detectors and light curfews, and LED lighting embedded in roadways. All coastal buildings must now have a lighting plan. However, problems continue with
population growth and lighting further inland that creates sky glow. Local lighting controls are not a complete solution.

34. Reptiles
Gecko

35. Reptiles
Rattle snakes and water snakes hunt in the dark of the new moon. These species have declined in areas of heavy light pollution.
Gecko mating is curtailed in artificial light.

36. Frogs and Toads

37. Frogs and Toads
Frogs and toads have extremely sensitive night vision, and can see in light levels of 10^-6 ( ) to 10^-5 ( ) lux. (Moonlight is typically about 1 lux). They are nocturnal, so light at night affects them and their predator-prey
relationship. Some species are attracted to light, which acts as an 'evolutionary trap'.
Mating behaviour (chorusing) and fertility (in toads) are inhibited under artificial light. After exposure to bright light (along a highway, for example) frog night vision can take hours to restore to night vision sensitivity.

38. Salamanders
Newt

39. Salamanders
Salamanders are aquatic animals. Newts rely on the day-night transition to initiate foraging, and rely on the characteristics of natural light for navigation.
Artificial light interferes with both these activities, and may be one factor in their population decline.

40. Fishes
Sea Trout

41. Fishes
Some fish species are attracted to light, and fishing vessels use high-intensity lamps to attract their prey. Mercury-vapour lamps have been used to attract fish into special channels around dams and power stations.
Other fish species avoid light. In Scotland, lights from a tennis court eliminated sea trout from a nearby river.

42. Fishes
Juvenile rainbow trout are inhibited from foraging by moonlight or artificial light. Darkness is essential for fish to avoid predation. Harbour seals have learned to use artificial light to outmigrating smolts.
Salmon fry are inhibited from migration by light levels in excess of 1 lux.
Several species are inhibited from spawning (laying eggs) by light at night

43. Insects and Streetlamps
Insects are critically important as pollinators and members of food webs in an ecosystem.
Lamp Effects on beetles, moths, flies, caddisflies:
Fixation or Capture Insect cannot escape near zone of the light.
Crash Barrier Flight path is interrupted so insects cannot migrate
Vacuum Cleaner Insects are removed from the area local to the lamp.

44. Insects and Streetlamps

45. Insects and Streetlamps
Radius of attraction: 400 to 600 metres under full darkness, 40 to 60 metres under full moon.
In dark zones, the attraction has been 2000 to insects per night. In a rural village with lighting, 400 to 1600 insects per night per lamp. Approximately 1/3 of the insects are killed or incapacitated.
In order, worst to best, are high-pressure mercury, high-pressure sodium and low-pressure sodium lamps. Insect attraction can be reduced with a UV filter.

46. Insects and Streetlamps
Mayflies

47. Moths

48. Moths
Areas around artificial lights function as bat, bird, gecko and spider feeding stations. Some bats live only a few days, so any disruption of their behaviour has an effect on the population. Light interferes with dispersal, which inhibits resistance to habitat fragmentation.
Light greater than 0.05 lux inhibits mating in one species of moth.

49. Moths
Lamp with ultraviolet component (mercury vapour, LED) is a strong attractant. Low pressure sodium vapour rarely attracts moths. Individual lamps attract more strongly than an aggregate of lamps.
One lamp trap collected 50,000 moths in a single evening. A typical catch rate is 4 to 10,000 insects per year.
Artificial light can inhibit moth parasites.

50. Fireflies
Artificial light swamps the luminescent mating communications of fireflies. Continuous light (due to skyglow) may affect the timing of development from
pupa to fly. Artificial light inhibits the resettlement of fragmented habitat (light barrier effect).

51. Freshwater Habitats
Plankton
Daphnia

52. Freshwater Habitats
Zooplankton are at the bottom of the food chain, so their health impacts the marine ecosystem. Nocturnal marine organisms respond to light of full moon (0.05 to 0.1 lux). Zooplankton rise to the surface at night. Artificial light suppresses zooplankton migration.
Cued by low light, stream insects (eg, caddisfly larvae) migrate downstreamat night while foraging.

53. Plant Responses to Artificial Lighting

54. Plant Responses to Artificial Lighting
There are four photoreceptor families. These have different spectrum responses in order to control the timing of growth (eg, germination) under various conditions (direct sun, open sky, shade).
Photoperiodism: some plants are sensitive to the length of the day.
Daylight extension inhibits the flowering of some plants and encourages it in others. A brief exposure to light will inhibit the cockleburr from flowering. Some trees exposed to lighting exhibited late season growth followed by severe winter dieback. Security lighting around prisons prevents soybeans from growing, within 30 metres of the source.

55. Minimizing the Impact of Artificial Light on an Ecosystem
Turn lights off when they are not needed
Reduces the impact on nocturnal insects, animals and on plants.
Limit the extent of lighting
Minimizes environmental impact and sky glow
Use new lighting methods:
Example: buried LED lamps in coastal highway
Consider the impact of spectrum
Example: some insects are particularly sensitive to ultraviolet

56. Water pollution effects

57. State of water Natural Water has,
Physical attributes ( Temperature, smell, Colour )
Chemical attributes – pH, DO, ions
Biological attributes – microorganisms
Organisms and users will adapt to water with particular physical, chemical and biological attributes
Salty sea
Fresh Water
Water Pollution
Alteration of the water features/attributes to the detriment of its inhabitants and users

58. State of water cont; Water Quality
The degree of pollution from the point of view of organisms living in or using the water.
Pollution Sources
Point sources
Piped (sewage,oils)
Stormwater drains
Non- Point sources
Agricultural runoff
Atmospheric pollution
Seepage from mine/urban areas

59. What is water pollution ?
"Water pollution" is defined as the addition of harmful or objectionable material causing an alteration of water quality.

60. How does water pollution occur?
Mankind through socio-economic activities introduce pollutants to the environment.
“Then the Earth’s waters cycle, carry and spread the pollutants all around the planet.”

61. Water Cycle Ocean runoff Water Supply Salt Water Intrusion Aquifer
Evaporation
Evapo-transpiration
runoff
Water
Supply
Discharge
treated water
Salt Water Intrusion
Aquifer
Infiltration
Recharge
Extraction
Precipitation
Evaporation/ET
Surface Water
Groundwater
Soil moisture
Infiltration (Art)
Return flow
Treated water
Aquifer intrusion
Soil
moisture

62. Pollution types
Thermal Pollution (Heated factory water or cooler water from another basin)
Warmer …less dissolved Oxygen
Cooler …More dissolved Oxygen
Suspended solids (Silts, Clay, living organisms, dead organic Matter).
Dissolved solids (chemicals)
Acid rain water (Nox and sox) Leaching effects
Trace elements (Heavy Metals)

63. Human activities that contribute to water pollution
Overgrazing
Poor agricultural land management
Removal of riparian vegetation
Sewage, industrial, and domestic discharges
Construction, Mining
Release of gases and aerosols to the atmosphere
Mismanagement of reservoirs
Accidental spills

64. Water pollutants (polluting elements)
Sewage/waste water;
Fertilizers/Pesticides;
Alien species
Global Warming
Atmospheric Deposition;
Pathogens; from untreated sewage, storm drains, septic tanks, runoff from farms
Petroleum;
Radioactive substances;
Heat;
Siltation/sediments;
Salinization - Increased salinization and salt runoff from irrigated farms causes salinization of major rivers;
Heavy metals cause unpleasant taste and odour to drinking water;
Suspended particles like sediments

65. Effects of polluted water on;
Effects on Agriculture; - use of wastewater and polluted surface and groundwater which contaminate crops and transmit disease to consumers and farm workers; Depositions of deleterious chemicals in soil leading to loss of soil fertility;
2. Effects on Environment/ecosystems; - pungent smell, discolourisation; increased temps; contamination; change the pH; decreased oxygen; detergents that create a mass of white foam in the river waters; Enrichment of groundwater with salts, nutrients from irrigated lands; eutrophication/algal blooms-what is the effect on recreational activities, water treatment plants/water providers; loss of aesthetic value; Algae clogs our waterways

66. Effects of polluted water on;
4. Domestic effects; - toxic substances such as lead, mercury, cadmium, and chromium or cyanide, which may affect the use of the receiving water for domestic use or for aquatic life.
5. Effects on industry; boiler scales, Heavy metals cause unpleasant taste and odour to drinking water; Suspended particles cause unpleasant taste & discoloration to drinking water;

67. Effects of polluted water on;
6. Economy
Unsightly color, reduced clarity, and obnoxious odour of the receiving waters also make it unfit for recreation and other productive uses;
Adverse effects of water pollution lead to economic losses in terms of reduced health, reduced agricultural productivity, and low-quality tourism.
There is also economic losses to family income due to the desire for safe bottled water which is more expensive than unbottled water.
When water is polluted, fish and other aquatic resources can perish, which leads to a decline in fisheries production. Erosion from degraded uplands and pollution from silt and sedimentation, as well as untreated sewerage, cause productivity losses in fisheries. Silt and sedimentation are major causes for losses in fishery production.
High levels of turbidity leads to economic losses;

68. Effects of polluted water on;
Improvement of water quality- Removal of organic matte thru aerobic decomposition; chlorination to remove bacteria, suspended solids; precipitation of salts, desalination etc during water treatment is expensive for polluted water;
Increased salinization and salt runoff leading to salinization of major rivers.;
Heavy metals cause unpleasant taste and odour to drinking water;
Suspended particles cause unpleasant taste & discoloration to drinking water;

69. Effects of polluted water on;
Hard water with usually high levels of calcium and magnesium can cause a build-up of minerals in pipelines/boiler scales and cause erosion and blockage problems. Water softeners and conditioners can be used in the water to reduce limescale but can be expensive.

70. Effects of polluted water on;
7. Leisure
Swimming pool water can become contaminated with a number of different pollutants and may cause changes in water colour and odour, some pollutants may also be harmful to human health.
Discolouration of the swimming pool water could be due to a number of reasons. It may be dirty and cause the water to change a milky colour if the filter is inadequate or blocked. Algae contamination can also cause discolouration, black algae cause black spots to appear in the pool. Other forms of algae contaminate pools when chlorine levels are too low, these often turn the water a green colour.
Chlorine is used in many swimming pools to keep them clean. There are certain substances, such as certain types of detergents and some forms of make-up, that don’t mix well with chlorine. These can cause adverse effects to human health such as skin and throat irritations.
Pond water can also become polluted with different chemicals or microbes. This can make the pond less attractive and can be harmful to aquatic life within the pond. An overgrowth of algae and accumulation of leaf debris are often the main problems with ponds in the home; UV filters are efficient at reducing algae levels in ponds and also remove decaying vegetation. These are useful for long term maintenance of your pond.

71. Effects of polluted water on;
8. Effects on human health;
Increased incidence of tumours, ulcers due to nitrate pollution; Increased incidence of skin disorders due to contact with pollutants; Increased incidence of constipation, diarrhea, and infections to intestine; Dangerous effects on growing foetus in pregnant women; Concentration of pollutants due to bioaccumulative pesticides through secondary and tertiary food chains in case of non-vegeterians; Still births, abortions, and birth of deformed children; Blue baby disease caused by methaneglobinema-which results in asphyxia (reduced oxygen supply);Reduced activity of immune system; Loss of memory power and reduced mental sharpness; Water borne diseases like jaundice, hepatitis, gasteroenteritis, will be more prevalent due to water pollution; Reduced bone development and muscular development; Reduced male fertility; Shifts in physiological cycles of human body.

72. Effects of polluted water on;
9. Effects on animal health;
Large scale death of aquatic and terrestrial animals;
Reduced reproduction rate;
Increased disease incidences;
Imbalances created in secondary foodchains;
Accumulation of bioaccumulative and nonbiodegraddable pollutants in animal bodies;
Bioaccumulation eg of organochlorine pesticides;
Biomagnification;
Cause health hazards like impotence, cancerous tumours etc

73. Major water related diseases
Type
Diseases
Cause
Effects
Prevention 1
Water borne
(Disease causing vector carried in water)
Cholera
Typhoid
Diarrhoea
Dysentery
Drinking contaminated water
Eating contaminated food
Dehydration
Use clean water for drinking
Keep flies away from food
Avoid unprotected water sources 2
Water washed
(Resulting from lack of water or improper use of water)
Scabies
Eye infections
Not washing
Lack of enough water for washing
Itchy lashes
Sore eyes
Blindness
Fever from lice diseases
Increase water availability for washing
Improve personal hygiene 3
Water Based
(Vector lives in water)
Bilharzias
Worms from the snails enter through the skin in infected water
Blood in stool
Pain in stomach
Reduce contact with infected snails
Control snails 4
Insect vector related
Malaria
River blindness
Mosquitoes bites
Semolina worm
Fever
Aches
Removal potential larvae breeding sites
Use mosquito netting
Introduce fish in ponds river water