1. Darfur Facts, Interpretations, and Possibilities Presentation material for educators and activists developed by: UnderstandingSudan.org latest version: February 13, 2007
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2. Dedicated to the future of Sudan…
© UNICEF/HQ /Ron Haviv
Hamudi Abdullah Mohammed in Kalma IDP Camp, South Darfur
©UNICEF/2004/Westerbeek
Cover Photo from UNICEF Darfur Emergency September – October 2005 Report
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3. Objectives Complicate the picture
There are many causes to the conflict and humanitarian catastrophe, many actors involved, and much vocabulary to be learned and debated
The conflict is not just local, but can be seen as extending over many scales: from farmers and nomads fighting over water to the great powers of the U.N. Security Council negotiating the international order
Highlight how discourse shapes understanding and action and encourage self-reflection
Ethnicity and race are ideas constructed by people’s actions and discourses
Genocide is debated in legal and policy circles
Intervention without a context can be a pretext
Emphasize
Importance of knowing history
Importance of committing to long run involvement
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4. Geography Darfur1 Sudan in the World Sudan in the Region2
1. rightsmaps.com/html/sudmap1.html and 2.
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5. Ethnicity in Darfur: Multiple and Mutable
Academics prefer the phrase “ethnic group” over “tribe”
Darfurians tell a variety of histories
Darfurians explain their ethnic identities in different ways
Identities can become simplified, polarized and cemented through communal and especially sexual violence
But experiences as refugees and displacement can have the opposite effect
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6. Current Situation in Darfur (October/November 2006)
Multiplicity of rebel groups:
Sudan Liberation Army (SLA) fractured; Minni Minawi faction signed Darfur Peace Agreement with government
Justice and Equality Movement (JEM) fractures
Several groups have formed loose alliance called National Redemption Front
Government-backed militia, janjawid, est. 20,000 persons
200,000 deaths estimated overall since February 2003.
218,000 refugees in 12 UNHCR camps in Chad2
Not all refugees in Chad are in camps
2 million persons internally displaced (IDPs)3
4 million persons in need of humanitarian assistance. 3
1. Coalition for International Justice, 5/05; 2. UNICEF, 12/20/05; 3. UN, Darfur Humanitarian Profile, 10/1/06
2. UNHCR Briefing note, 17 November 2006,
3. Darfur Humanitarian Profile, 10/1/06,
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7. Five Ways of Seeing the Crisis (‘Framing Stories’)
Anti-government positions
Arab supremacism – Arabs against ‘black Africans’ (Musa Hilal)
Regime in-fighting by proxy – Turabi versus Beshir and Taha
Straight up scorched earth response to rebel threat; Regime has little legitimacy but much oil money, response is massive retaliation that may or may not be controllable- like warlordism
Pro-government positions
Farmers versus herders because of desertification
Me-too spoilers of the main peace agreement
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8. Five Ways of Seeing the Crisis
1. Arab supremacism – Arabs against ‘black Africans’
-Little is known about importance of ethnic identities among ordinary persons in Darfur
One famous study by Frederick Barth suggested that ethnic labbels were very fluid
Some suggest a recent “hardening” of identities
Fur, Zaghawa, Masalit, Tunjur, Meidob “farmers” => called by others, in colloquial Arabic: zurga or zunji (translated into English as “black”)
Rizeigat, Hamar, Humr, Bani Halba “nomads” => “Arab” (groups claiming descent from Arabian groups and typically practicing pastoralism)
-Regional conflict Chad, Libya) in 1970s and 1980s generated Tajamu al-Arabi – Arab Gathering, a group of Darfurians espousing Arab solidarity against other groups
 Ideology of supremacy adapted by marginalized Arab (nomadic) groups with Musa Hilal as leader
-Encouraged by Islamicist, Arab regime in Khartoum, supported with weapons and mobility, and inflamed by international currents (war on terror, “clash of civilizations”) -
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9. Musa Hilal A Janjawiid Leader
Son of Sheikh Hilal Musa, Nazir of Um Julul, sub-clan of Abbala (camel-herding) Rizeigat, claiming descent from Juhayna Arab nomads who came into Darfur from the West between the 14th and 18th Centuries.
In 2002 jailed because of violence in Darfur.
©Human Rights Watch,
Government of Sudan released him to lead militia counter-attacks after SLA April 2003 surprise attacks on El Fasher.
Claimed in 2004 HRW interview that GOS military officers lead PDF militias.
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10. Five Ways of Seeing the Crisis
2. Regime in-fighting by proxy:
Hasan el Turabi versus Omar el Beshir and Ali Osman Taha
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11. Five Ways of Seeing the Crisis
2. Regime in-fighting by proxy: Turabi versus Beshir and Taha
- June 1989 Coup followed by Islamicization
-Overthrew government of Prime Minister Sadiq el Mahdi
Grandson of Mahdi
Leader of Umma Party
Turabi’s brother-in-law
-Continued civil war with SPLA in the South of the country.
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12. The Mahdi
Mohamed Ahmed defeated the Turco-Egyptians along with British mercenaries (Charles “Chinese” Gordon”) in He died soon after, but his successor, the Khalifa Abdullah al-Ta’aishi, established an independent state that lasted until British – with Egyptian help – re-conquered much of Sudan in 1898.
Mohamed Ahmed (al-Mahdi) defeated British/Egyptians in 1885
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13. Five Ways of Seeing the Crisis
3. Straight up scorched earth response to threat
Regime has little legitimacy but much oil money
Many soldiers in regular military who had fought in the South came from west so could not easily deploy them in Darfur.
Other rebels based in Darfur had in the 1980s overthrown Chad regime
Resort to militias out of habit
Used PDF’s in South and Nuba Mountains in long running civil war
“Jihad” in mid-1990’s in Nuba Mountains
Response to rebel threat in western Darfur was proxy militias who may or may not be controllable
“Counter-Insurgency on the Cheap”- A. de Waal
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14. Anglo-Egyptian Condominium
British defeated Sultan Ali Dinar in 1916 by force and used local nomads as militias in process. The Sultanate of Darfur was then incorporated into Sudan. Aerial bombing was also part of the British campaign to subdue recalcitrant natives.
British camel corps
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15. SPLA
There are reports of child soldiers being used in the Darfur conflict as they were in the conflict in the south of Sudan.
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16. Five Ways of Seeing the Crisis
4. Farmers versus herders because of desertification
Ecology of region
The Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)
North to South increase in precipitation
Transhumant Routes
Variation in arability of terrian and soil
The Dar Fur Sultanate had established the Hakura system of land tenure, where tribal leaders controlled large tracts of land
1980’s: Drought/Desertification
pressures on land  increase conflicts
Rainfall Analysis - Cumulative Amounts in relative terms : % of long term average
Sudan Agromet Dekadal Bulletin, Vol 2, Issue 19, September
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17. Five Ways of Seeing the Crisis
5. Me-too spoilers of the main peace agreement
Garang and Beshir during peace negotiations, 2003
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18. Powell, Garang and Taha during peace negotiations 2003
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19. Five Ways of Seeing the Crisis
5. Me-too spoilers of the main peace agreement
How to get respect: The SPLA got concessions only after 23 years of fighting.
The Comprehensive Peace Agreement splits oil revenues between the GOS and the South. What about the rest of the country?
US, UK, Norway – specifically choose to limit negotiations to North-South talks
SLA in Darfur has origins in SPLA – took “One Sudan” of Garang to heart.
Pick up weapon to get attention – February 2003
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20. Why Intervene in Darfur?
Continued child mortality among the displaced
Continued insecurity and loss of capability for livelihoods in the camps
Insecurity persists with no political solution
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21. Variants of Intervention
Peacekeepers and monitors work in cooperation with Sudan government, recognizing sovereignty
Safe havens around towns with guaranteed relief corridors, with no government authority – bad idea; Makes displacement more permanent
Darfur declared autonomous region under U.N. Authority
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22. Current Interventions in Darfur
Humanitarian Intervention
13 UN agencies and 83 NGO’s and Red Cross/Red Crescent Societies
13,869 Staff (12,895 national; 974 international as of Nov. 2005)
Peace-monitoring/Protection Forces
African Union Mission in Sudan (AMIS) with support from European Union's African Peace Facility, UN and US (though US House just voted to cut funds 1/3/06.)
Currently 6,848 personnel in Darfur (peacekeepers, civilian police and military observers). Many say should be double or as much as 45,000.
International Political Actions
UN Resolutions
International Criminal Court – March ‘05 UN SCR 1593 referred situation to ICC
AU led peace process –
Negotiations in Abuja, Nigeria
Five point agenda agreed to: 1) The general principles; 2) security arrangements for an enhanced humanitarian ceasefire; 3) comprehensive ceasefire and final security arrangements: 4) social reintegration; 5) and time line for implementation,
January ’06 mini-Summit in Libya -- Now postponed
Regional Involvements
Chad, President Idriss Deby faces internal threats and supposedly is quite ill; recently diverted money from Chad oil pipeline to military uses, prompting World Bank and donors to cut-off assistance
Libya, Egypt, Uganda, DR Congo, Eritrea, Ethiopia are involved in complicated ways
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23. Further interventions?
Regime Change?
Negotiated Peace?
Nation building?
Multilateralism?
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24. Genocide? Declaration triggers intervention? Varying Definitions
1948 Geneva Convention
Lay and Customary international usage
Political equivocations
Political will (e.g. US House defunding AU mission)
Uses by parties
GOS – selective denigration of Arabs (re – Iraq, Palestine). Double standards: Why not DR Congo?
Internalized locally – contributes to ‘hardening’ of identities
Mobilizing international action
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25. Conclusions Be wary of “African” and “Arab” labels
What histories are they hiding?
How are they being used
Locally?
Internationally?
Historically inaccurate, yet incredibly powerful in the present
The power of discourse, of labels, of names
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26. Conclusions continued
Be committed to the long term
Educating ones’ self
History, languages, cultures
Larger regional scene (Chad, Libya, Uganda – Lord’s Resistance Army)
Getting back to “normal” will take a long time.
Return of IDPs and Refugees?
Truth and Reconciliation?
Justice?
Re-establishing basic routines of production, reproduction of life.
Who will decide access and control over resources?
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27. Conclusions continued
Be committed to the long term
International aid – how to be part of a sustainable solution?
Jan Egelund, Under-Secretary-General for Humanitarian Affairs and Emergency Relief Coordinator
Don’t wait for emergencies, create funds up front beforehand.
Tony Blair and G8: Aid commitments to Africa?
AU and NEPAD – African solutions?
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28. Conclusions continued
Rethink “aid” and “development”
Interdependencies
Consumption and Production
Oil, Gum Arabic, Livestock, Water
Political Frameworks
War on Terror
Small arms proliferation
Peace-keeping, Peace-making….
Gendered aspects of violence, justice, recovery?
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29. It will be a long, hard road.
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