1. Compounding/Composition Conversion Derivation/Affixation Ⅰ. Ⅱ. Ⅲ. Episode 4 Major Processes of Word-formation

2. Pre-questions: * What does affixation mean? * How many types of affixation are there? * Why is conversion called zero derivation? * How does compound vary from compounding? * How to define a compound?

3. Ⅰ. Derivation/Affixation 1. Definition Derivation/Affixation: may be defined as a process of word- formation by adding a word element, such as a prefix, suffix, infix or combining form to an already existing word.

4. 2. Subdivision Affixation may be subdivided into 1 prefixation 2 suffixation 3 infixation 4 circumfixation 5 modification

5. Prefixation 1) Definition Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding a prefix or combining form to the base(an already existing word). Prefixes modify the lexical meaning of the base. They do not generally change the word class of the base.

6. Negation : e.g. a-/an-, dis-, in-, il-, im-, ir-, un-, non-, etc. Pejoration: e.g. mis-, mal-, dys-, pseudo-, non-, etc. Degree or Size: e.g. arch-, by-, extra-, hyper-, micro-, macro-, mega-, para-, preter-, pan-, omni-, quasi-, etc. Attitude or tendency: e.g. pro-, phil(o)-, anti-, contra-, counter-, con-, with-, etc. 2) Classification of Prefixes

7. Location Time and Order Number e.g. over-, super-, sur-, a-, hypo-, sub-, under-, de-, fore-, pre-, pro-, retro- post-, intra-, medi-, ex-, out-, circum-, peri-, trans-, dia-, etc. e.g. ante-, fore-, pre-, post-, after-, re-, ex-, etc. e.g. uni-/mono-, bi-/duo/di-/amphi, ter-/tri-, quadri- /tetra-, quinque- /penta, sex/sexi, septi/hepta, octo, nona/ennea, decem/deca, deci, centi, multi-/poly-, etc.

8. a) for denoting reversed action, e.g. deform, decentralize, decompose, disarm, disclose, discourage, uncover, unfreeze, uninstall, etc. b) for emphasis of mood, e.g. awake, arise, befit, conquer, commemorate, declare, enliven, persuade, persevere, etc. c) for changing parts of speech, e.g. asleep, ablaze, astray, belittle, befriend, bewitch, disburden, disrobe, outdate, outfox, embark, embody, enrich, encash, debug, noncount, nondegree, noncredit, etc. Miscellaneous:

9. 3) Differentiating Prefixes infamous and unfamous infamous: well-known for being bad or wicked; notorious unfamous: not well-known nonprofessional and unprofessional nonprofessional: not professional; amateur unprofessional: against the rules or customs of a profession

10. illegal and nonlegal illegal: unlawful nonlegal: not concerning law inhuman, nonhuman, unhuman inhuman: very cruel, lacking warm human feelings nonhuman: not belonging to human unhuman: inhuman + nonhuman nonmoral, immoral, amoral nonmoral: not related to morality immoral: contrary to morality, wicked and evil amoral: not concerned with morals; not based on moral standards; not following any moral rules

11. Suffixation 1) Definition Suffixation is the formation of a new word by adding a suffix or a combining form to the base, and usually changing the word class of the base.

12. 2) Classification of Suffixes Noun Suffixes e.g. -er, -or, -ist, -ician, -al, -an, -ant/-ent, -ee, -ese, - ic, -dom, -ation, -ness, -ism, -hood, -ship, -age, - th, -ment, etc. See to the following suffixes denoting a person :  -crat, -ee, -eer, -itis (refer to p.17-20)  -aire, e.g. millionaire, billionaire, commissionaire, doctrinaire

13. -ard: e.g. coward, bastard, drunkard, dullard, laggard, sluggard, niggard, Spaniard, wizard, etc. -arian: equalitarian, unitarian, humanitarian, utilitarian, vegetarian, etc. -ast: dynast, enthusiast, gymnast, symposiast, etc.

14. -aster: medicaster, grammaticaster, poetaster, criticaster, etc. -ive: e.g. detective, fugitive, native, inquisitive, captive, consumptive, etc. -ling: e.g. earthling, moonling, worldling, fondling, hireling, starveling, weakling, youngling, etc.

15. -nik: e.g. beatnik, computernik, jazznik, nogoodnik, refusenik, protestnik, etc. -ster: youngster, oldster, pollster, speedster, spinster, jokester, songster, rhymester, gangster, mobster, trickster, etc.

16. -le: babble, cackle, chuckle, dangle, giggle, jingle, shamble, twinkle, wriggle, sizzle, snuffle, ripple, sparkle, stumble, etc. -esce: acquiesce, effloresce, adolesce, coalesce, evanesce, liquesce, luminesce, obsolesce, senesce, etc. -lyze: analyze, paralyze, catalyze, electrolyze, enzymolyze, autolyze, etc.

17. Adjective Suffixes - ful, -less, -y, -ish, -able, -ible, -ic, -ous, - en, -ed, -free, -ly, -some, -fic, -proof, -ing, - tive, etc. Adverb Suffixes - ly, -ward, -wise, -fold, -style, -long, -erly, - ways, etc.

18. Verb Suffixes e.g. -fy, -ize, -en, -ish -ate: activate, evaporate, evaluate, fascinate, invalidate, maturate, rejuvenate, originate, etc. -er: chatter, clatter, flutter, glimmer, utter, twitter, stammer, shudder, mutter

19. 3) Differentiating Suffixes historical and historic historical: pertaining to history historic: notable or memorable or significant in history economical and economic economical: not wasteful, frugal economic: of economics or economy

20. political and politic political: concerned with politics politic: acting or judging wisely womanly and womanish womanly: having or showing the qualities suitable to a woman womanish: usu. derogatory(of a man) like a woman in character, behavior, appearance, etc.

21. Infixation Infixation is decidedly less common than suffixation and prefixation. It is marginal in English but grammatically important in other languages. It is a word-forming process whereby an affix (free or bound) attaches within a base. The kind of affix involved in this process is called an infix.

22. In present-day English infixation not of an affix but of an entire word is actively used to form words in vernacular English. See to the following examples:

23. abso-bloody-lutely = absolutely kanga-bloody-roo = kangaroo de-bloody-tach = detach photo-fucking-synthesize = photosynthesize im-fucking-possible = impossible fan-fucking-tastic = fantastic ido-freaking-syncratic = idiosyncratic morpho-verbing-logy = verb morphology

24. Circumfixation Circumfixation is a word-forming process whereby an affix made up of a prefix and a suffix surrounds and attaches to a base. Such affix consisting of parts that attach at the beginning and end of a base is called a circumfix. (cf. Lingualinks Library version 4.0[CD-ROM] AIL International, 1999)

25. See to the following examples: embolden —to make bolder enliven —to make livelier enlighten —to inform, to shed light on.

26. Modification Modification is a morphological process which produces an alteration within a root or base. Here is an example of modification: the root “man” is modified when it undergoes the pluralization that results in the form “men”. The same case happens to foot—feet, tooth —teeth, goose —geese, etc.

27. Ⅱ. Conversion 1. Definition: Conversion is a word-formation process in which a word of certain word-class is shifted into a word of another word-class without the addition of an affix. It is also called zero derivation.

28. 2. Types of Conversion (A) N. →V. Conversion: 1)To put in/on N. : can, bottle, floor, cage, corner, pocket, etc. 2)To give/provide N.: shelter, coat, wax, sugar, etc. 3)To deprive of N.: weed, core, skin, peel, etc. 4)To do sth. with N.: brake, finger, knife, nail, elbow, etc.

29. 1)To be N. with respect to: mother, boss, nurse, monkey, parrot, ape, worm, duck, etc. 2)To make/change…into N.: cash, orphan, fool, etc. 3)To send/go by N.: mail, ship, boat, telegraph, bicycle, motor, etc. 4) To spend the period of time denoted by N.: summer, holiday, winter, weekend, honeymoon, vacation, etc.

30. (B) V. →N. Conversion: 1)static V. →count/mass/abstract noun: desire, doubt, dislike, dismay, taste, etc. 2)dynamic Vs. → Event/activity N: give a cry/start/laugh, have a look/ride/try/drink, make a dash/dive/guess/an attempt, take a peep/turn

31. 3) object/result of Vs: find, kill, return, suspect, buy, fill, etc. 4) agent of action or subject of Vs: cheat, bore, spy, help, etc. 5) Instrument of Vs: cover, cure, lift, polish, wrap, permit, 6) Place of Vs: climb, hide, bus-stop, dump, haunt, pass, lie, turn, etc. 7) Phrasal Vs → Nouns: breakdown, breakthrough, dropout, send-off, get-together, holdup, etc.

32. (C) Adj. →V. Conversion : free, smooth, warm, calm, clear, empty, narrow, etc. (D) Adj. →N. Conversion : the deaf and the blind, the old and the young, etc. (E) Other Conversion : 1)N. →Adv. e.g. Tom went home early. 2)Adv. →N. e.g. He knows all ins and outs of the whole story. 3)V. →N. pl. e.g. the haves and have-nots dos and don’ts

33. 4) Prep. →Adj. e.g. I will take a through train. 5) Pron. →N. e.g. Is her baby a he or she? 6) Adv. →Adj. e.g. His father was the then president. 7) Conj. →N. e.g. His talk contained too many ifs and buts. 8) Interj. →V. e.g. The manager pooh-poohed our plan. 9) Aux. V. →N. e.g. The English-English dictionary is a must for the English majors.

34. Ⅲ. Compounding 1. Definition 2. How to define a compound? How does it vary from a phrase? 3. Classification of Compounds 4. Functions of Compounds 5. Orthographic Principles of Compounds

35. 1. Definition Compounding is a word-forming process of joining two or more bases to form a new unit, a compound. It is the most common device which has been productive at every period of the English language.

36. 2. Criteria to Define a Compound and to Distinguish it from a Phrase? 1) Orthographic Criterion: a) Solid: butterfly, layman, gentleman, etc. b) hyphenated: never-ending, cross-examine, etc. c) open: prime time, red tape, red herring, etc. 2) Phonological Criterion: A compound has a so-called compound accent, i.e. a single stress on the first element and a secondary stress on the second element.

37. 3) Semantic Criterion: The sense of a compound can be obtained by adding the senses of the two bases together, e.g. workday, sunset, sunrise, bedroom, etc.

38. Attention should be paid to the fact that there are exceptions for the very three criteria. Firstly, among the three written forms, it is difficult to decide which form should be used as a criterion, for sometimes the same compound may appear in three different forms, e.g. flowerpot/flower-pot/flower pot, airline/air-line/air line, girlfriend/girl-friend/girl friend, etc.

39. Secondly, stress is not always a reliable indicator of compound status. For example, in the compounds such as ′ grass ‵ roots, ′ red ‵ tape, the main stress is on the second element and the secondary stress on the first element; in ‵ back ‵ yard, ‵ short- ‵ sighted, both components have level stress.

40. Thirdly, one can not always tell what the compound means by the words it contains, e.g. dog days→the hottest days of the year, in July and August. Semantically, compounds can be said to have a meaning which may be related to but cannot always be inferred from the meaning of its component parts.

41. Therefore, none of the three criteria can be used as strict defining criteria of compounds. However, the grammatical criterion can be used to distinguish a compound from a phrase. NP: very fine day√ C: very greenhouse × NP: finer day √ C: greenerhouse × NP: fine day = the day which is fine C: greenhouse ≠ the house which is green

42. How to define a compound? What is a compound? A compound, composed of two or more bases, semantically conveys a single idea, and grammatically functions as an independent lexical unit.

43. 3. Classification of Compounds (A) Noun Compounds N+V: godsend, sunstroke, daybreak N+V+ing: housekeeping, brainstorming, family- planning, stamp-collecting N+V+er: goalkeeper, policymaker V+N: killjoy, scarecrow, ceasefire V+er+N: fighter plane, killer shark N+N: windmill, hydrogen bomb N’s+N: lion’s share, cat’s paw

44. (B) Adjective Compounds N+V+ed: man-made, henpecked, time-honored N+V+en: heart-broken, plague-stricken N+V+ing: peacekeeping, face-saving N+Adj: capital-intensive, duty-free V+N: cut-price, telltale, break-neck Adj/Adv+V+ing: everlasting, never-stopping Adj/Adv+V+ed: long-cherished, newly-born Adj+N: blue-ribbon, long-term Adj+Adj: aural-oral, new-rich

45. (C) Verb Compounds N+V: airmail, hand-clean day-dream, belly- laugh, job-hop N+N: keynote, moonlight, war-game Adj+V: broadcast, whitewash Adj+N: blackmail, green-light V+N: test-market, showboat V+V: crash-land, press-forge V+Adj: blow-dry, drip-dry

46. (D) Adverb Compounds Adj/Adv+N: beforehand, downwind, upwind, off-shore, outdoors, offstage Adv+Prep: hereabouts, hereby, hereof, thereby, wherefrom, whereon N+N: part-time, sideways Num.+N: first-class, second-hand N+Adj: sky-high, sidelong

47. (E) Phrasal Compounds NPC: jack-of-all-trades, man-of-letters, hide-and-seek, take-leave, forget-me-not AdjPC: off-the-job, hit-and-run, cat-and- dog, womb-to-tomb, cock-and-hen, mom- and-pop, go-as-you-please, papa-know- best, once-in-a-blue-moon, around-the- clock

48. 4. Functions of Compounds  Brevity  Vividness

49. 5.Orthographic Principles of Compounds 1)Compound modifiers are generally hyphenated to avoid confusion: high-school teacher, hot-water bottle, real-life experience. 2) When a compound is preceded by an adjective, it is often hyphenated to avoid confusion: damp wine- cellar, tiny broom-closet, old house-cat.

50. 3) Compound adjectives formed with “high” or “low” or “all” are generally hyphenated: high-quality programming, low-budget films, all-round quality. 4) Compound adjectives formed with an adverb plus an adjective or a particle are often hyphenated when they occur before the noun they modify: a well- known actor, an ill-advised move, best-love poems, a much-improved situation. But if the adverb ends in –ly in an adverb-adjective compound, the hyphen is omitted: a finely tuned mechanism, a carefully worked canvas.

51. 5) Compound adjectives formed with an adverb or a noun and a past particle are always hyphenated when they precede the noun they modify: well- kept secret, above-mentioned reason, snow- capped trees. 6) Compound adjectives formed with an adjective and a noun to which –d or –ed has been added are also hyphenated: yellow-eyed cat, black- haired girl, many-tiered cake, middle-aged woman, old-fashioned hairstyle.

52. 7) Compound adjectives formed with a noun, adjective or adverb and a present particle are hyphenated when the compound precedes the noun it modifies: long-lasting friendship, a bone- chilling tale, far-reaching consequences. 8) Compound nouns formed with a noun and a gerund are generally open: crime solving, job hunting, trout fishing. However, some have become permanent solid compounds: faultfinding, housekeeping.

53. 9) Compound modifiers formed of capitalized words should not be hyphenated: Old English poetry, Iron Age manufacture. 10) Scientific compounds are usually not hyphenated: carbon monoxide poisoning, dichromic acid solution. 11) Phrasal compounds used as modifiers are normally hyphenated. But a foreign phrase used as a modifier is not hyphenated: a bona fide offer, a per diem allowance.

54. 12) Compound color adjectives are hyphenated: a red-gold sunset, a cherry-red sweater. 13) Numbers from twenty-one to ninety-nine and adjective compounds with a numerical first element(whether spelt out or written in figures are hyphenated: first-rate movie, three- dimensional figure, six-sided polygon, 19 th -century novels. But spelt-out number used with –fold are not hyphenated; figures and –fold are hyphenated: tenfold, 20-fold. Compounds of a number and –odd are hyphenated: four-odd, 60-odd. A modifying compound consisting of a number and a possessive noun is not hyphenated: one week’s pay, two hours’ work.

55. Questions: How the words, “netiquette” and “hoffice” are formed? How many minor processes of word- formation are there in English?