1. The major motives of life: Love, sex, food, and work chapter 14

2. Overview Motives to love Motives for sex Motives to eat Motives to achieve chapter 14

3. Defining motivation An inferred process within a person or animal that causes movement either toward a goal or away from an unpleasant situation Intrinsic motivation: the pursuit of an activity for its own sake Extrinsic motivation: the pursuit of an activity for external rewards such as money or fame chapter 14

4. The biology of love Neurological origins of passionate love begin in infancy when infants attach to mother. Certain neurotransmitters and hormones involved in pleasure and reward are activated in mother- baby, adult lover, and close friend bonds. Endorphins Functional MRI’s have shown other neurological similarities. Certain parts of the brains light up when people look at pictures of sweethearts and biological children. chapter 14

5. The psychology of love The need for affiliation The motive to associate with other people, by seeking friends, companionship, or love Predictors of love Proximity: choosing friends and lovers from the set of people who are closest to us Similarity: choosing friends and lovers who are like us in looks, attitudes, beliefs, personality, and interests chapter 14

6. The attachment theory of love Like infants to their caregivers, adults have attachment styles to their partners. Secure: rarely jealous or worried about abandonment Avoidant: distrustful, avoids intimate attachments Anxious-ambivalent: agitated and worried partner will leave chapter 14

7. Ingredients of love Sternberg’s triangular theory of love Passion: euphoria and sexual excitement Intimacy: being free to talk about things, feeling close to and understood by loved ones Commitment: needing to be with the other person, being loyal Ideal love involves all three. chapter 14

8. Hormones and sexual response Testosterone appears to promote sexual desire in both sexes. Documentation included several studies of men and women. However, not a simple relationship Sexual behavior also increases testosterone. Psychological factors are usually more important than hormones. Sexual offenders who are chemically castrated don’t always lose sexual desires. chapter 14

9. Arousal and orgasm Freud differentiated between “immature” clitoral orgasms and “mature” vaginal orgasms. Kinsey suggested that males and females had similar orgasms but that females were less sexual. Masters and Johnson asserted that women’s capacity for sexual responses surpassed men’s. But didn’t examine differences based on developmental, experiential, or cultural factors chapter 14

10. Arousal and orgasm Psychologists still disagree on whether there are sex differences in sex drive. Social psychologists suggest Males’ sexual behavior is more biologically determined Females’ sexual desires and responsiveness are more affected by circumstances, the specific relationship, and cultural norms. chapter 14

11. Sexual-response cycle chapter 14

12. The psychology of desire Motives for sex Enhancement Intimacy Coping Self-affirmation Partner approval Peer approval Procreation chapter 14

13. Sexual coercion & rape Persistent gender differences occur in perceptions of, and experiences with, sexual coercion. Of a representative sample of 3000 people 25% of the women said that a man (usually husband or boyfriend) had forced them to do something sexually. Only 3% of men said they had ever forced a woman into a sexual act. chapter 14

14. Culture of desire Sexual scripts: sets of implicit rules that specify proper sexual behavior for a person in a given situation, varying with the person’s age, culture, and gender chapter 14

15. Your turn Is sexual orientation more a matter of nature or nurture? 1. Nature 2. Nurture chapter 14

16. The riddle of sexual orientation Factors which do not explain homosexuality A smothering mother An absent father Emotional problems Same-sex play in childhood and adolescence Parental practices Role models Seduction by an older adult chapter 14

17. Biological explanations Studies demonstrating brain differences have not been replicated. Prenatal exposure and androgens May be moderately heritable chapter 14

18. Genetic links Identical twins have highest concordance rates for sexual orientation Suggests some genetic link in sexual orientation chapter 14

19. Difficulty in identifying causes Sexual identity and behavior are different and occur in different combinations. Some are sexually attracted to both men and women. Some are heterosexual in behavior but have homosexual fantasies. Sexual behaviors can differ in different cultures. chapter 14

20. Your turn Which is the biggest influence on bodyweight for most people? 1. Genetic predisposition 2. Mood effects of eating 3. Fat content of foods 4. Quantity of food chapter 14

21. The genetics of weight Heavy people are no more or less emotionally disturbed than average weight people. Heaviness is not always caused by overeating. Set point The genetically influenced weight range for an individual, maintained by biological mechanisms that regulate food intake, fat reserves, and metabolism chapter 14

22. Body weights of twins Identical twins are more similar in body weight than fraternal twins Whether raised together or apart Genetic factors play a large role in body weight. chapter 14

23. The role of leptin Leptin alters the brain chemistry that influences how animals eat as adults. Regulates weight by strengthening neural circuits in hypothalamus that reduce appetite and weakening neural circuits that strengthen appetite Has led to hypothesis that overfeeding infants while hypothalamus is developing may produce childhood obesity chapter 14

24. The complexity of weight Appetite suppressants alone often fail to help individuals lose weight. Other factors Other genes and body chemicals Hormones which regulate hunger Receptors in nose, mouth, and stomach chapter 14

25. The overweight debate Weight or fitness? Many researchers believe that individuals who are overweight and physically fit are actually healthier than individuals who are sedentary and thin. chapter 14

26. Environment and obesity Environmental factors affecting weight: Increased abundance of low cost, very high fat foods Eating on the run instead of leisurely meals Energy saving devices such as remote controls Driving rather than walking or biking Watching television or videos instead of exercising chapter 14

27. Cultural attitudes In many cultures, where food is a rarer commodity, fat is viewed as a sign of health and affluence in men, sexual desirability in women. While people of all ethnicities and social classes have been getting heavier, the cultural ideal for white women has been getting thinner. The cultural ideal for men has also changed. Muscles used to mean working class, now muscular bodies symbolize affluence. chapter 14

28. Biology vs. culture People from cultures that regard overweight as a sign of health and sexiness are more likely to be obese. People from cultures emphasizing thinness are more likely to have eating disorders. Many with eating disorders have an irrational terror of being too fat. Bulimia Anorexia nervosa chapter 14

29. Ideal body image Which image is ideal for your sex? Which comes closest to your body? chapter 14

30. Bulimia and anorexia Bulimia An eating disorder characterized by episodes of excessive eating (binges) followed by forced vomiting or use of laxatives (purging) Anorexia nervosa An eating disorder characterized by fear of being fat, a distorted body image, radically reduced consumption of food, and emaciation chapter 14

31. Influences on eating disorders Extremely slim television stars Genetic mutations or set points that conflict with cultural standards For men, desire to be more “manly” Unrealistic standards of beauty and self-criticism Psychological factors such as depression, anxiety, low self-esteem, perfectionism, distorted body image, and pressure from others chapter 14

32. Motives to achieve Need for achievement: a learned motive to meet personal standards of success and excellence in a chosen area chapter 14

33. Importance of goals Goals improve motivation when... the goal is specific. the goal is challenging but achievable. the goal is framed in terms of approach goals instead of avoidance goals. chapter 14

34. Types of goals Performance goals: goals framed in terms of performing well in front of others, being judged favorably, and avoiding criticism Mastery goals: goals framed in terms of increasing one’s competence and skills chapter 14

35. Expectations and self- efficacy Self-fulfilling prophecy An expectation that comes true because of the tendency to act in ways to bring it about Self-efficacy A person’s belief that he/she is capable of producing desired results, such as mastering new skills and reaching goals chapter 14

36. Working conditions Conditions that increase job involvement, motivation, and satisfaction Work provides sense of meaningfulness. Employees have control over part of work. Tasks are varied. Company maintains clear and consistent rules. Employees have supportive relationships with superiors and co- workers. Employees receive useful feedback. Company offers opportunities for growth. chapter 14

37. Opportunities to achieve When a person lacks fair chance to make it, he or she may be less than successful. chapter 14

38. Motivational conflicts Approach-approach conflict Equally attracted to two activities or goals Avoidance-avoidance conflict Choosing between the “lesser of two evils” Approach-avoidance conflict One activity or goal has both positive and negative elements Multiple approach-avoidance conflicts Several choices, each with advantages and disadvantages chapter 14

39. Maslow’s pyramid of needs Needs arranged hierarchically. Low-level needs must be met before higher- level needs will be addressed. chapter 14