1. Introduction to Biotechnology- Overview
Lecture 1
Introduction to Biotechnology- Overview
Dr Aparna Islam

2. What is Biotechnology? break it down: Bio - alive or living
Technology - the application of science to achieve industrial or commercial objectives
So basically, we’re talking about using living materials for a commercial or industrial purpose
Taking living cells and putting them to work for us!!!

3. Definition:
“The use of living organisms, cells and biological molecules, to solve problems or make useful products”

4. Definition:
Biotechnology applies the knowledge of biology to enhance and improve the environment, health, and food supply.
Using biotechnology, scientists work to develop
environment-friendly alternatives to fossil fuels and plastics;
new medicines, vaccines and disease diagnostic tools
higher yielding and more nutrient-rich crop plants.

5. A Definition That is a Little More Fun…

6. Welcome to the Biotechnology World -
a technology based on biological system

7. Origins of Biotechnology
Although it seems like a new thing, biotechnology has actually been around a while
Domesticated plants and animals are the result of selective breeding (have you ever seen a wild corn plant, not something you’d want to eat)
Using yeast to make bread rise
Using bacteria or yeast to ferment grapes into wine (alcohol), milk into cheese

8. What Are the Stages of Biotechnology Development
Ancient biotechnology- early history as related to food and shelter; Includes domestication
Classical biotechnology- built on ancient biotechnology; Fermentation promoted food production, and medicine
Modern biotechnology- manipulates genetic information in organism; Genetic engineering

9. Just Some of the Latest Advances in the World of Biotechnology
Cloning
DNA fingerprinting
Genetically modified bacteria to synthesize products
Genetically modified foods

10. Pioneers in Biotechnology
Robert Hooke
1665
Invented the compound light microscope
First to observe cells in cork

11. Antony van Leeuwenhoek
1675
Discovered cells using a simple microscope
Discovered
Bacteria
Protists
Red blood

12. Gregor Mendel
1863
Austrian monk who conducted the first genetics experiments using pea plants in the mid 1800s.
Often considered the founder of genetics.

13. Thomas Hunt Morgan
1866
Discovered how genes are transmitted through chromosomes

14. Louis Pasteur
1870’s
Disproved the notion of spontaneous generation, describing the role of bacteria in spoilage and the scientific basis for fermentation
Created the rabies vaccine

15. Walter Sutton
1877
Discovered Chromosomes

16. Sir Alexander Fleming
1881
Discovered penicillin

17. Rosalind Elsie Franklin
Research led to the discovery of the double helix structure of DNA

18. James Watson & Francis Crick
1953
Englishmen responsible for the discovery of the double helix structure of DNA using X-ray photographs

19. Paul Berg
1972
Stanford University scientist who first developed recombinant DNA technology, a method for insertion of genetic material from one organism into another.

20. Historical Development of Biotechnology
1750 B.C.
Origins of “biotechnology” emerge in methods of food production and plant and animal breeding
Use of bacteria to produce cheese (food preservation)
Use of natural enzymes in yogurt
Use of yeast to produce bread
Use of fermentation for producing wine and beer

21. 1869
DNA is discovered in trout sperm by German Miescher

22. 1919
The word “biotechnology” is first used by a Hungarian agricultural engineer.

23. 1940’s-1950’s
Widespread work is undertaken to investigate the structure and function of DNA

24. 1980
The U.S. Supreme Court approves the patenting of genetically altered organisms.

25. 1980’s-1990’s
A variety of GMO’s and biotechnology techniques are introduced in fields from agriculture to medicine
Recombinant DNA technology-extracts DNA from one organism for use in another, allowing more rapid and specific improvements in plants and animals
Plant Tissue Culture- gains widespread acceptance as a method to quickly and cheaply produce genetically identical plants

26. 1990’s
First transgenic organisms (GMO’s) are introduced in widespread agricultural production, particularly in the area of crops.
Bt corn and soybeans are introduced offering “natural” insect resistance by the introduction of a gene from the bacterium Baccillus thuringensis

27. 1997
Dolly is the first animal cloned from diploid cells is produced in Scotland

28. Late 1990’s-Early 2000’s
Human cloning is outlawed in the U.S. and the first concerns over the use of human stem cells in research begin to arise.

29. What Subjects Are Involved With Biotechnology?
Multidisciplinary-
involving a number of disciplines that are coordinated for a desired outcome
Sciences
Life sciences
Physical sciences
Social sciences
Mathematics
Applied sciences
Computer applications
Engineering
Agriculture

30. Some Technologies used in Biotechnology
1. Bioprocessing technology
2. Monoclonal antibody technology
3. Cell culture technology
4. Tissue engineering technology
5. Genetic engineering technology
6. Bioinformatics technology
7. DNA chip technology

31. 1. Bioprocessing
The use of bacteria, yeast, mammalian cells and/or enzymes to manufacture products
Large scale fermentation and cell cultures, carried out in huge bioreactors, manufacture useful products
Products: Insulin, vaccines, vitamins, antibiotics, amino acids, etc.

32. 2. Monoclonal Antibodies ( MCAb) technology
                                        
Our immune system makes proteins called ANTIBODIES
Antibodies are produced by cells called B-lymphocytes
B lymphocytes are produced when our immune system detects a foreign substance that has invaded your body
A general representation of the method used to produce monoclonal antibodies.

33. Monoclonal Antibody Production
Definition: Producing antibodies for medicine by cloning a single cell

34. Therapeutic Uses of MCAb
MCAb are used for Home Pregnancy tests
Used to diagnose infectious disease such as strep throat and gonorrhea
Used to detect cancer (they bind to tumor cells)
Used to detect diseases in plants and animals, food contaminants and environmental pollutants

35. 3. Cell Culture Technologies
Growing cells in containers or large bioreactors
Plant cell cultures are used to
grow genetically engineered
plants that contain useful traits,
such as resistance to insect pests

36. Animal Cell Culture Used for breeding livestock:
Bovine zygotes from genetically superior bull and cows can be produced in large numbers to be implanted into surrogate cows

37. Human Embryonic Stem Cell (ESC)
ESC are undifferentiated cells that have the potential to develop into any cell in the human body
One source of ESC is the human blastocyst – inner mass of cell gives rise to the ESC lines
Other sources of ESC are being discovered and developed

38. 4. Tissue Engineering Technology
A combination of cell biology and materials science
Creates semi synthetic tissues in the laboratory
Uses natural collagen and synthetic polymers to produce artificial skin
The goal is to be able to create complex organs as replacement for diseased or injured organs

39. 5. Genetic Engineering Technology
Makes use of Recombinant DNA technology
“The recombining of genetic material from two different sources”
It is the next step, after selective breeding, in changing the genetic makeup of organisms

40. Genetically-Modified Bacteria
Inserting new genes into a bacteria to trick it into making a product for us
Although each bacteria usually doesn’t make much product, millions of bacteria can be grown in bioreactors at the same time, and the product harvested from all of them at once

41. How are Genetically-Modified Bacteria Created?
A piece of DNA containing the gene for the desired product is cut with restriction enzymes
A plasmid (circular bacterial DNA) is cut with the same restriction enzyme
The piece and the plasmid are ligated (fused together)

42. The plasmid is transformed into the bacteria
The plasmid either stays in whole or the gene crosses over into the bacteria’s DNA

43. Some Products Now Synthesized by GM Bacteria
Biodiesel fuel
Chemicals to block an HIV infection
Photographs
Human insulin for diabetics
Interferon
Vaccine
Plastics

44. Genetically-Modified Foods
Livestock or produce that has received new genes to make the product healthier, resistant to pest or more nutritious
The process is similar to that used to create genetically- modified bacteria, but the genes are being inserted into multi- celled organism instead

45. How Genetically Modified foods are made
The process varies slightly between each species, particularly between plants and animals, however some aspects are the same
Changes are made to the organism’s DNA by inserting a useful gene into the egg cell
This changed egg is then implanted into a mother and the baby born hopefully has the desired trait

46. Some Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO)
Mice with human genes
Animal with extra copies of growth hormone genes, that grow faster and produce leaner meat
Chicken resistant to bacteria that causes food poisoning
Transgenic plants – Plants that glow in the dark (firefly gene)
Plants that are resistant to disease, to frost

47. Why make GMOs?
To give plants resistance to certain pests without the use of pesticides
To make plants drought resistant
To make cows that produce more milk
To make vegetables that can undergo long transport without over-ripening flavor savor tomato
To make rice that contain extra vitamins that may be missing from our diets

48. Cloning
“The use of a single cell from an adult to grow an entirely new individual that is genetically identical to the organism from which the cell was taken”
Scientist hope that cloning will help them save endangered species
The technology is controversial for many reasons – including the fact that cloned animals may suffer from genetic defects and health problems

49. Why Clone? To create identical cells for research purposes
To maintain a genetically desirable species of plant or animal
To create a missing organ or tissue for treatment of human diseases
To save endangered or extinct species
Single cells and DNA are fairly easy to clone and so this has been done for a comparatively long amount of time
Cloning entire organisms becomes increasingly more difficult the more complex the organism is (ex. Humans are harder to clone than worms) and so it is very recent and for some species has not been perfected yet

50. What about Human Cloning?
At this point, it is not known whether human cloning from specialized cells with adult genetic material is even possible
The only potentially acceptable use of human cloning deals with simply cloning human cells for cell therapy or tissue engineering

51. 6. Bioinformatics technology
Use and organization of information about biology
Interface of computer science, mathematics and molecular biology
Objective is to use database management to A. map and compare genomes, B. determine protein structure, C. design drugs, D. identify genes, etc.

52. 7. DNA Chip Technology
A combination of the semiconductor industry and molecular biology
Consists Tagged DNA on a Microchip that can be read using lasers, computers and microscopes
Allows tens of thousands of gene to be analyzed on a single microchip. Used to detect mutations and diagnose genetic diseases.

53. DNA Fingerprinting
Identifying the pattern of certain sequences in parts of a person’s DNA to determine if two samples come from the same person, related persons or two, non-related individuals
Only parts of the DNA sequence are used because the whole genome is too long to sequence repeatedly
Everyone has a unique sequence of DNA (even identical twins, although their genomes would be very close to identical)
In order to be an effective tool, we need to get DNA from many people to determine how often certain patterns show up in the population

54. What can DNA Fingerprints be used for?
Paternity / maternity tests
To determine if a suspect was at a crime scene
To identify a murder victim
To identify a soldier killed in the line of duty
To determine identity

55. Types of Biotechnology
Microbial Biotechnology
Agricultural Biotechnology
Animal Biotechnology
Forensic Biotechnology
Bioremediation
Aquatic Biotechnology
Medical Biotechnology
Regulatory Biotechnology

56. Microbial Biotechnology
manipulation of microorganisms such as yeast and bacteria
Create better enzymes
More efficient decontamination processes for industrial waste product removal
Used to clone and produce large amounts of important proteins used in human medicine

57. Agricultural Biotechnology
United Nations Food and Agricultural Org. predicts by 2050, we will need to feed a world population of 9.1 billion! This requires raising food production by approximately 70%!
Answer: This will vary, depending on what students come up with. Probably, most will discuss use of recombinant technology to genetically modify foods. For example, scientists can create better crops that are perhaps more drought resistant. They can create ways to better preserve fruits and vegetables so they don't quickly rot and get wasted. Perhaps create crops that are foul tasting to pests including bugs and animals so that the crops survive. Perhaps create ways to have crops grow even in the most extreme conditions. Students will probably discuss better ways to feed people without relying on being carnivores. A lot of the discussion will be ways to obtain proteins from other novel food sources.

58. So we need improve our by
Plants more environmentally friendly that yield more per acre (genetically engineered)
Resistance to diseases and insects
Foods with higher protein or vitamin content
Drugs developed and grown as plant products
These better plants ultimately reduce production costs to help feed the growing world population

59. Animal Biotechnology
Animals as a source of medically valuable proteins
Antibodies through transgenic animals
Animals as important models in basic research
Gene "knockout" experiments
Design and testing of drugs and genetic therapies
Animal cloning
Source of transplant organs

60. Transgenic Animal:
way to achieve large scale production of therapeutic proteins from animals for use in humans
Female transgenic animals express therapeutic proteins in milk (contains genes from another source)
Example: human genes coding for clotting proteins can be introduced into female goats for production of these proteins in their milk

61. Gene knockout:
Disrupt a gene in the animal and then look at what functions are affected in the animal as a result of the loss of the gene
This allows researchers to determine the role and function of the gene
Since humans are similar to rats and mice, gene knockout studies in rats and mice can lead to better understanding of gene function in humans.
Example: Rhodopsin gene
Perhaps, you want to study the role of insulin in preventing diabetes. By knocking out the gene coding for insulin, you can observe the animal's response (development of diabetes). Then scientists can inject recombinant insulin to the animal and again, study their responses to the treatment.

62. Forensic Biotechnology
DNA fingerprinting
Inclusion or exclusion of a person from suspicion
Paternity cases
Identification of human remains
Endangered species
Tracking and confirmation of the spread of disease

63. Forensic Biotechnology
Based on DNA results from this gel, did the defendant commit this crime?
Explain based on the gel results.
Answer: Based on the gel results, there is evidence that the defendant committed the crime. The position of the bands as well as number of bands on the gel match with the victim's blood. It is important to note, that though the bands are very light for the sample from the jeans, they also match the victim's blood.
Based on this gel, you CAN ONLY say that the defendant is linked to the crime scene. You cannot use this evidence to state that the defendant is guilty of the murder.

64. Bioremediation
Bioremediation- using biological processes to solve environmental problems.
The use of biotechnology to process and degrade a variety of natural and manmade substances
Particularly those that contribute to environmental pollution
Examples – stimulated growth of bacteria that degrade components in crude oil when oil spill
- Wastewater treatment
- Heavy metal removal
- Chemical degrqadation

65. Bioremediation – adding nutrients to stimulate growth of bacteria to clean up oil spill

66. Phytoremediation- process of plants being used to solve pollution problems.
Plants absorb and break down pollutants like heavy metals, pesticides, explosives, and leachate
Composting- a process that promotes biological decomposition of organic matter.
Compost bin- a facility that contains materials for composting
In-vessel composting- using enclosed containers for composting

67. Aquatic Biotechnology
Aquaculture – raising finfish or shellfish in controlled conditions for use as food sources
50% of all fish consumed by humans worldwide
Genetic engineering
Disease-resistant oysters
Transgenic salmon that overproduce growth hormone: AquAdvantage
Bioprospecting: rich and valuable sources of new genes, and proteins with important applications for human benefits
Marine plankton and snails found to be rich sources of antitumor and anticancer molecules

68. Why create transgenic salmon overproducing growth hormone?
AquAdvantage
Why create transgenic salmon overproducing growth hormone?
How does this modified salmon help humans?
What are the concerns?
transgenic
normal
Answer 1. By creating transgenic salmon that overproduce Growth Hormone, it allows the salmon to have fast growth rates over a short period of time.
Answer 2. This modified salmon helps humans because it decreases the time and expenses required to grow the salmon for market sale.
Two different salmon

69. Medical Biotechnology
Genetic information that are available to us:

70. What can we achieve from these?
Involved with the whole spectrum of human medicine
Preventive medicine: vaccines
Diagnosis of health and illness: pregnancy and cancer
Treatment of human diseases: insulin
New information from Human Genome Project:
genetic disorders
Gene therapy
Stem cell technologies
Stem cells – grown in lab and then treated with different chemicals to allow them to develop into specific kinds of tissues needed for transplant
Current use: stem cells are used for diabetes; spinal cord injuries

71. What Is a Test Tube Baby?
In vitro fertilization- fertilization of collected ova outside the reproductive tract; Usually in a test tube
Process:
Semen is collected from males of desired quality
Ova are removed from females
Sperm and ova are placed in a petri dish or test tube

72. Regulatory Biotechnology
Quality Assurance (QA)
All activities involved in regulating the final quality of a product
Quality Control (QC)
Part of QA process that involves lab testing and monitoring of processes and applications to ensure consistent product standards
Together QA and QC ensure that biotechnology products meet strict standards for purity and performance

73. Applications of Biotechnology
Plant Science
Animal Science
Environmental Science
Health/Agri-Medicine

74. Plant Science:
Wide scale production of transgenic plants impacting horticulture
Genetically Modified plants can be resistant to disease, frost, insects
GM can be a factory for pharmaceuticals: tobacco plant that produces Hemoglobin
Plants that yield a healthier and higher than normal crop to improve our food supply

75. Animal Science:
Increased use of methods of in vitro fertilization (IVF) and artificial insemination (AI) improve selected breed programs
Livestock that is engineered to resist disease – No more Mad Cow Disease!
Cattle that produces human pharmaceutical products
Cattle with increased muscle mass and less fat for healthier food supply

76. Environmental Science:
Use of biotechnology techniques in environmental science for cleaning contaminants and protecting endangered species
Bioremediation-use of natural organisms to clean contaminants
Immunoassay tests are used to test for the presence of contaminants in soil, water and even blood
Installation of biological barriers to prevent the transfer of harmful microorganisms between facilities

77. Health/Agri-medicine
DNA analysis/paternity
Pharming-the creation of plants and animals capable of producing medical substances/ animals producing important substances of human systems (goats that produce milk with a malaria antigen in it)
To detect and diagnose many diseases and medical conditions more quickly and with greater accuracy
Designer drugs
Gene therapy to correct genetic disease
Cell therapy to produce replacement tissues and organs
Cancer Therapy to suppress tumor genes and prevent or cure cancer
Design and production of vaccines

78. Problems with Biotechnology
Transfer of genes found in transgenic organisms to natural populations.
Terminator genes have been used to minimize this risk
Unexpected impacts of genetically modified organisms and biotechnology processes on other organisms and the environment
Expense of the utilization of many biotechnology techniques
Cost of producing transgenic animals
Concerns over the safety of incorporating GMO’s into food for human consumption
Allergens
Lack of education among both consumers and producers concerning biotechnology processes and products
Ethics

79. Bioethics
Ethics- knowing right from wrong, and then doing the right idea
Bio- living organisms
Bioethics- knowing right from wrong with living organisms, and then doing the right idea
Advances in biotechnology will give rise to problems, issues and concerns humans have never before faced:
*Safety of Genetically Engineered Food
*Genetic testing and screening vs. privacy issues
*Ethical questions concerning cloning and stem cells
*Role of the Government in regulating research

80. Despite all the exciting things that biotechnology can do or will do in the near future, there are things to consider:
Would it be ethical to clone a human? Why or why not?
Should your insurance company be allowed to have access to your DNA profile if it detected some disease?
How can the bacteria in bioreactors be disposed of once they are no longer useful?
What happens to the natural balance when GMO are sent out to compete with natural plants in the environment?

81. “Each individual has a responsibility to see that biotechnology is developed and used wisely.
We must do whatever we can to avoid mistakes and ensure that biotechnology benefits not only us but also the other organisms that share this planet with us”

82. So Why Should I Care?
Biotechnology aspects all aspects of your everyday life, including: agriculture and food safety, healthcare, law enforcement and environmental issues
Although there are many great career paths involving biotechnology that you may consider, possibly even more importantly, you will soon be voters
You’ll make decisions on the ethics involving legalizing certain types of research
You might be on a jury where biotechnology plays a key part in the evidence presented