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Introduction to Biotechnology- Overview
Lecture 1 Introduction to Biotechnology- Overview Dr Aparna Islam
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What is Biotechnology? break it down: Bio - alive or living
Technology - the application of science to achieve industrial or commercial objectives So basically, we’re talking about using living materials for a commercial or industrial purpose Taking living cells and putting them to work for us!!!
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Definition: “The use of living organisms, cells and biological molecules, to solve problems or make useful products”
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Definition: Biotechnology applies the knowledge of biology to enhance and improve the environment, health, and food supply. Using biotechnology, scientists work to develop environment-friendly alternatives to fossil fuels and plastics; new medicines, vaccines and disease diagnostic tools higher yielding and more nutrient-rich crop plants.
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A Definition That is a Little More Fun…
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Welcome to the Biotechnology World -
a technology based on biological system
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Origins of Biotechnology
Although it seems like a new thing, biotechnology has actually been around a while Domesticated plants and animals are the result of selective breeding (have you ever seen a wild corn plant, not something you’d want to eat) Using yeast to make bread rise Using bacteria or yeast to ferment grapes into wine (alcohol), milk into cheese
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What Are the Stages of Biotechnology Development
Ancient biotechnology- early history as related to food and shelter; Includes domestication Classical biotechnology- built on ancient biotechnology; Fermentation promoted food production, and medicine Modern biotechnology- manipulates genetic information in organism; Genetic engineering
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Just Some of the Latest Advances in the World of Biotechnology
Cloning DNA fingerprinting Genetically modified bacteria to synthesize products Genetically modified foods
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Pioneers in Biotechnology
Robert Hooke 1665 Invented the compound light microscope First to observe cells in cork
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Antony van Leeuwenhoek
1675 Discovered cells using a simple microscope Discovered Bacteria Protists Red blood
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Gregor Mendel 1863 Austrian monk who conducted the first genetics experiments using pea plants in the mid 1800s. Often considered the founder of genetics.
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Thomas Hunt Morgan 1866 Discovered how genes are transmitted through chromosomes
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Louis Pasteur 1870’s Disproved the notion of spontaneous generation, describing the role of bacteria in spoilage and the scientific basis for fermentation Created the rabies vaccine
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Walter Sutton 1877 Discovered Chromosomes
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Sir Alexander Fleming 1881 Discovered penicillin
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Rosalind Elsie Franklin
Research led to the discovery of the double helix structure of DNA
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James Watson & Francis Crick
1953 Englishmen responsible for the discovery of the double helix structure of DNA using X-ray photographs
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Paul Berg 1972 Stanford University scientist who first developed recombinant DNA technology, a method for insertion of genetic material from one organism into another.
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Historical Development of Biotechnology
1750 B.C. Origins of “biotechnology” emerge in methods of food production and plant and animal breeding Use of bacteria to produce cheese (food preservation) Use of natural enzymes in yogurt Use of yeast to produce bread Use of fermentation for producing wine and beer
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1869 DNA is discovered in trout sperm by German Miescher
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1919 The word “biotechnology” is first used by a Hungarian agricultural engineer.
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1940’s-1950’s Widespread work is undertaken to investigate the structure and function of DNA
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1980 The U.S. Supreme Court approves the patenting of genetically altered organisms.
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1980’s-1990’s A variety of GMO’s and biotechnology techniques are introduced in fields from agriculture to medicine Recombinant DNA technology-extracts DNA from one organism for use in another, allowing more rapid and specific improvements in plants and animals Plant Tissue Culture- gains widespread acceptance as a method to quickly and cheaply produce genetically identical plants
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1990’s First transgenic organisms (GMO’s) are introduced in widespread agricultural production, particularly in the area of crops. Bt corn and soybeans are introduced offering “natural” insect resistance by the introduction of a gene from the bacterium Baccillus thuringensis
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1997 Dolly is the first animal cloned from diploid cells is produced in Scotland
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Late 1990’s-Early 2000’s Human cloning is outlawed in the U.S. and the first concerns over the use of human stem cells in research begin to arise.
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What Subjects Are Involved With Biotechnology?
Multidisciplinary- involving a number of disciplines that are coordinated for a desired outcome Sciences Life sciences Physical sciences Social sciences Mathematics Applied sciences Computer applications Engineering Agriculture
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Some Technologies used in Biotechnology
1. Bioprocessing technology 2. Monoclonal antibody technology 3. Cell culture technology 4. Tissue engineering technology 5. Genetic engineering technology 6. Bioinformatics technology 7. DNA chip technology
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1. Bioprocessing The use of bacteria, yeast, mammalian cells and/or enzymes to manufacture products Large scale fermentation and cell cultures, carried out in huge bioreactors, manufacture useful products Products: Insulin, vaccines, vitamins, antibiotics, amino acids, etc.
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2. Monoclonal Antibodies ( MCAb) technology
Our immune system makes proteins called ANTIBODIES Antibodies are produced by cells called B-lymphocytes B lymphocytes are produced when our immune system detects a foreign substance that has invaded your body A general representation of the method used to produce monoclonal antibodies.
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Monoclonal Antibody Production
Definition: Producing antibodies for medicine by cloning a single cell
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Therapeutic Uses of MCAb
MCAb are used for Home Pregnancy tests Used to diagnose infectious disease such as strep throat and gonorrhea Used to detect cancer (they bind to tumor cells) Used to detect diseases in plants and animals, food contaminants and environmental pollutants
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3. Cell Culture Technologies
Growing cells in containers or large bioreactors Plant cell cultures are used to grow genetically engineered plants that contain useful traits, such as resistance to insect pests
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Animal Cell Culture Used for breeding livestock:
Bovine zygotes from genetically superior bull and cows can be produced in large numbers to be implanted into surrogate cows
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Human Embryonic Stem Cell (ESC)
ESC are undifferentiated cells that have the potential to develop into any cell in the human body One source of ESC is the human blastocyst – inner mass of cell gives rise to the ESC lines Other sources of ESC are being discovered and developed
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4. Tissue Engineering Technology
A combination of cell biology and materials science Creates semi synthetic tissues in the laboratory Uses natural collagen and synthetic polymers to produce artificial skin The goal is to be able to create complex organs as replacement for diseased or injured organs
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5. Genetic Engineering Technology
Makes use of Recombinant DNA technology “The recombining of genetic material from two different sources” It is the next step, after selective breeding, in changing the genetic makeup of organisms
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Genetically-Modified Bacteria
Inserting new genes into a bacteria to trick it into making a product for us Although each bacteria usually doesn’t make much product, millions of bacteria can be grown in bioreactors at the same time, and the product harvested from all of them at once
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How are Genetically-Modified Bacteria Created?
A piece of DNA containing the gene for the desired product is cut with restriction enzymes A plasmid (circular bacterial DNA) is cut with the same restriction enzyme The piece and the plasmid are ligated (fused together)
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The plasmid is transformed into the bacteria
The plasmid either stays in whole or the gene crosses over into the bacteria’s DNA
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Some Products Now Synthesized by GM Bacteria
Biodiesel fuel Chemicals to block an HIV infection Photographs Human insulin for diabetics Interferon Vaccine Plastics
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Genetically-Modified Foods
Livestock or produce that has received new genes to make the product healthier, resistant to pest or more nutritious The process is similar to that used to create genetically- modified bacteria, but the genes are being inserted into multi- celled organism instead
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How Genetically Modified foods are made
The process varies slightly between each species, particularly between plants and animals, however some aspects are the same Changes are made to the organism’s DNA by inserting a useful gene into the egg cell This changed egg is then implanted into a mother and the baby born hopefully has the desired trait
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Some Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO)
Mice with human genes Animal with extra copies of growth hormone genes, that grow faster and produce leaner meat Chicken resistant to bacteria that causes food poisoning Transgenic plants – Plants that glow in the dark (firefly gene) Plants that are resistant to disease, to frost
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Why make GMOs? To give plants resistance to certain pests without the use of pesticides To make plants drought resistant To make cows that produce more milk To make vegetables that can undergo long transport without over-ripening flavor savor tomato To make rice that contain extra vitamins that may be missing from our diets
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Cloning “The use of a single cell from an adult to grow an entirely new individual that is genetically identical to the organism from which the cell was taken” Scientist hope that cloning will help them save endangered species The technology is controversial for many reasons – including the fact that cloned animals may suffer from genetic defects and health problems
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Why Clone? To create identical cells for research purposes
To maintain a genetically desirable species of plant or animal To create a missing organ or tissue for treatment of human diseases To save endangered or extinct species Single cells and DNA are fairly easy to clone and so this has been done for a comparatively long amount of time Cloning entire organisms becomes increasingly more difficult the more complex the organism is (ex. Humans are harder to clone than worms) and so it is very recent and for some species has not been perfected yet
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What about Human Cloning?
At this point, it is not known whether human cloning from specialized cells with adult genetic material is even possible The only potentially acceptable use of human cloning deals with simply cloning human cells for cell therapy or tissue engineering
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6. Bioinformatics technology
Use and organization of information about biology Interface of computer science, mathematics and molecular biology Objective is to use database management to A. map and compare genomes, B. determine protein structure, C. design drugs, D. identify genes, etc.
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7. DNA Chip Technology A combination of the semiconductor industry and molecular biology Consists Tagged DNA on a Microchip that can be read using lasers, computers and microscopes Allows tens of thousands of gene to be analyzed on a single microchip. Used to detect mutations and diagnose genetic diseases.
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DNA Fingerprinting Identifying the pattern of certain sequences in parts of a person’s DNA to determine if two samples come from the same person, related persons or two, non-related individuals Only parts of the DNA sequence are used because the whole genome is too long to sequence repeatedly Everyone has a unique sequence of DNA (even identical twins, although their genomes would be very close to identical) In order to be an effective tool, we need to get DNA from many people to determine how often certain patterns show up in the population
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What can DNA Fingerprints be used for?
Paternity / maternity tests To determine if a suspect was at a crime scene To identify a murder victim To identify a soldier killed in the line of duty To determine identity
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Types of Biotechnology
Microbial Biotechnology Agricultural Biotechnology Animal Biotechnology Forensic Biotechnology Bioremediation Aquatic Biotechnology Medical Biotechnology Regulatory Biotechnology
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Microbial Biotechnology
manipulation of microorganisms such as yeast and bacteria Create better enzymes More efficient decontamination processes for industrial waste product removal Used to clone and produce large amounts of important proteins used in human medicine
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Agricultural Biotechnology
United Nations Food and Agricultural Org. predicts by 2050, we will need to feed a world population of 9.1 billion! This requires raising food production by approximately 70%! Answer: This will vary, depending on what students come up with. Probably, most will discuss use of recombinant technology to genetically modify foods. For example, scientists can create better crops that are perhaps more drought resistant. They can create ways to better preserve fruits and vegetables so they don't quickly rot and get wasted. Perhaps create crops that are foul tasting to pests including bugs and animals so that the crops survive. Perhaps create ways to have crops grow even in the most extreme conditions. Students will probably discuss better ways to feed people without relying on being carnivores. A lot of the discussion will be ways to obtain proteins from other novel food sources.
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So we need improve our by
Plants more environmentally friendly that yield more per acre (genetically engineered) Resistance to diseases and insects Foods with higher protein or vitamin content Drugs developed and grown as plant products These better plants ultimately reduce production costs to help feed the growing world population
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Animal Biotechnology Animals as a source of medically valuable proteins Antibodies through transgenic animals Animals as important models in basic research Gene "knockout" experiments Design and testing of drugs and genetic therapies Animal cloning Source of transplant organs
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Transgenic Animal: way to achieve large scale production of therapeutic proteins from animals for use in humans Female transgenic animals express therapeutic proteins in milk (contains genes from another source) Example: human genes coding for clotting proteins can be introduced into female goats for production of these proteins in their milk
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Gene knockout: Disrupt a gene in the animal and then look at what functions are affected in the animal as a result of the loss of the gene This allows researchers to determine the role and function of the gene Since humans are similar to rats and mice, gene knockout studies in rats and mice can lead to better understanding of gene function in humans. Example: Rhodopsin gene Perhaps, you want to study the role of insulin in preventing diabetes. By knocking out the gene coding for insulin, you can observe the animal's response (development of diabetes). Then scientists can inject recombinant insulin to the animal and again, study their responses to the treatment.
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Forensic Biotechnology
DNA fingerprinting Inclusion or exclusion of a person from suspicion Paternity cases Identification of human remains Endangered species Tracking and confirmation of the spread of disease
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Forensic Biotechnology
Based on DNA results from this gel, did the defendant commit this crime? Explain based on the gel results. Answer: Based on the gel results, there is evidence that the defendant committed the crime. The position of the bands as well as number of bands on the gel match with the victim's blood. It is important to note, that though the bands are very light for the sample from the jeans, they also match the victim's blood. Based on this gel, you CAN ONLY say that the defendant is linked to the crime scene. You cannot use this evidence to state that the defendant is guilty of the murder.
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Bioremediation Bioremediation- using biological processes to solve environmental problems. The use of biotechnology to process and degrade a variety of natural and manmade substances Particularly those that contribute to environmental pollution Examples – stimulated growth of bacteria that degrade components in crude oil when oil spill - Wastewater treatment - Heavy metal removal - Chemical degrqadation
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Bioremediation – adding nutrients to stimulate growth of bacteria to clean up oil spill
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Phytoremediation- process of plants being used to solve pollution problems.
Plants absorb and break down pollutants like heavy metals, pesticides, explosives, and leachate Composting- a process that promotes biological decomposition of organic matter. Compost bin- a facility that contains materials for composting In-vessel composting- using enclosed containers for composting
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Aquatic Biotechnology
Aquaculture – raising finfish or shellfish in controlled conditions for use as food sources 50% of all fish consumed by humans worldwide Genetic engineering Disease-resistant oysters Transgenic salmon that overproduce growth hormone: AquAdvantage Bioprospecting: rich and valuable sources of new genes, and proteins with important applications for human benefits Marine plankton and snails found to be rich sources of antitumor and anticancer molecules
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Why create transgenic salmon overproducing growth hormone?
AquAdvantage Why create transgenic salmon overproducing growth hormone? How does this modified salmon help humans? What are the concerns? transgenic normal Answer 1. By creating transgenic salmon that overproduce Growth Hormone, it allows the salmon to have fast growth rates over a short period of time. Answer 2. This modified salmon helps humans because it decreases the time and expenses required to grow the salmon for market sale. Two different salmon
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Medical Biotechnology
Genetic information that are available to us:
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What can we achieve from these?
Involved with the whole spectrum of human medicine Preventive medicine: vaccines Diagnosis of health and illness: pregnancy and cancer Treatment of human diseases: insulin New information from Human Genome Project: genetic disorders Gene therapy Stem cell technologies Stem cells – grown in lab and then treated with different chemicals to allow them to develop into specific kinds of tissues needed for transplant Current use: stem cells are used for diabetes; spinal cord injuries
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What Is a Test Tube Baby? In vitro fertilization- fertilization of collected ova outside the reproductive tract; Usually in a test tube Process: Semen is collected from males of desired quality Ova are removed from females Sperm and ova are placed in a petri dish or test tube
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Regulatory Biotechnology
Quality Assurance (QA) All activities involved in regulating the final quality of a product Quality Control (QC) Part of QA process that involves lab testing and monitoring of processes and applications to ensure consistent product standards Together QA and QC ensure that biotechnology products meet strict standards for purity and performance
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Applications of Biotechnology
Plant Science Animal Science Environmental Science Health/Agri-Medicine
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Plant Science: Wide scale production of transgenic plants impacting horticulture Genetically Modified plants can be resistant to disease, frost, insects GM can be a factory for pharmaceuticals: tobacco plant that produces Hemoglobin Plants that yield a healthier and higher than normal crop to improve our food supply
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Animal Science: Increased use of methods of in vitro fertilization (IVF) and artificial insemination (AI) improve selected breed programs Livestock that is engineered to resist disease – No more Mad Cow Disease! Cattle that produces human pharmaceutical products Cattle with increased muscle mass and less fat for healthier food supply
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Environmental Science:
Use of biotechnology techniques in environmental science for cleaning contaminants and protecting endangered species Bioremediation-use of natural organisms to clean contaminants Immunoassay tests are used to test for the presence of contaminants in soil, water and even blood Installation of biological barriers to prevent the transfer of harmful microorganisms between facilities
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Health/Agri-medicine
DNA analysis/paternity Pharming-the creation of plants and animals capable of producing medical substances/ animals producing important substances of human systems (goats that produce milk with a malaria antigen in it) To detect and diagnose many diseases and medical conditions more quickly and with greater accuracy Designer drugs Gene therapy to correct genetic disease Cell therapy to produce replacement tissues and organs Cancer Therapy to suppress tumor genes and prevent or cure cancer Design and production of vaccines
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Problems with Biotechnology
Transfer of genes found in transgenic organisms to natural populations. Terminator genes have been used to minimize this risk Unexpected impacts of genetically modified organisms and biotechnology processes on other organisms and the environment Expense of the utilization of many biotechnology techniques Cost of producing transgenic animals Concerns over the safety of incorporating GMO’s into food for human consumption Allergens Lack of education among both consumers and producers concerning biotechnology processes and products Ethics
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Bioethics Ethics- knowing right from wrong, and then doing the right idea Bio- living organisms Bioethics- knowing right from wrong with living organisms, and then doing the right idea Advances in biotechnology will give rise to problems, issues and concerns humans have never before faced: *Safety of Genetically Engineered Food *Genetic testing and screening vs. privacy issues *Ethical questions concerning cloning and stem cells *Role of the Government in regulating research
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Despite all the exciting things that biotechnology can do or will do in the near future, there are things to consider: Would it be ethical to clone a human? Why or why not? Should your insurance company be allowed to have access to your DNA profile if it detected some disease? How can the bacteria in bioreactors be disposed of once they are no longer useful? What happens to the natural balance when GMO are sent out to compete with natural plants in the environment?
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“Each individual has a responsibility to see that biotechnology is developed and used wisely.
We must do whatever we can to avoid mistakes and ensure that biotechnology benefits not only us but also the other organisms that share this planet with us”
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So Why Should I Care? Biotechnology aspects all aspects of your everyday life, including: agriculture and food safety, healthcare, law enforcement and environmental issues Although there are many great career paths involving biotechnology that you may consider, possibly even more importantly, you will soon be voters You’ll make decisions on the ethics involving legalizing certain types of research You might be on a jury where biotechnology plays a key part in the evidence presented
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