1. Learning

2. Norris Edwards: Chapter 8: Wade08.ppt Page: 2 Learning Objectives: By the end of this unit you should be able to: Identify the two types of conditioning shown by behaviorist to explain human behavior. Compare and contract the principles of operant and classical conditioning. Describe shaping, extinction, and stimulus generalization and stimulus discrimination in operant conditioning. Explain social-cognitive learning theory. By the end of this unit you should be able to: Identify the two types of conditioning shown by behaviorist to explain human behavior. Compare and contract the principles of operant and classical conditioning. Describe shaping, extinction, and stimulus generalization and stimulus discrimination in operant conditioning. Explain social-cognitive learning theory.

3. Learning Learning refers to relatively permanent changes in behavior resulting from practice or experience –Learning can be unlearned –Observation can lead to learning –Learning requires an operational memory system

4. Classical Conditioning Classical condition is learning by association –it is sometimes called “reflexive learning” –it is sometimes called respondent conditioning The Russian physiologist, Ivan Pavlov, and his dogs circa 1905 –discovered classical conditioning by serendipity –received the Nobel Prize in science for discovery

5. Norris Edwards: Chapter 8: Wade08.ppt Page: 5 Pavlov’s Apparatus Harness and fistula (mouth tube) help keep dog in a consistent position and gather uncontaminated saliva samples –They do not cause the dog discomfort Harness and fistula (mouth tube) help keep dog in a consistent position and gather uncontaminated saliva samples –They do not cause the dog discomfort

6. Pavlov’s Experiment

7. Analysis of Pavlov’s Study

9. Classical Conditioning Association: the KEY element in classical conditioning –Pavlov considered classical conditioning to be a form of learning through association, in time, of a neutral stimulus and a stimulus that incites a response. –Any stimulus can be paired with another to make an association if it is done in the correct way (following the classical conditioning paradigm)

10. Classical Conditioning Terminology of Classical Conditioning –Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): any stimulus that will always and naturally ELICIT a response –Unconditioned Response (UCR): any response that always and naturally occurs at the presentation of the UCS –Neutral Stimulus (NS): any stimulus that does not naturally elicit a response associated with the UCR

11. Classical Conditioning Terminology of Classical Conditioning (continued) Conditioned Stimulus (CS): any stimulus that will, after association with an UCS, cause a conditioned response (CR) when present to a subject by itself Conditioned Response (CR): any response that occurs upon the presentation of the CS

12. Classical Conditioning Certain stimuli can elicit a reflexive response –Air puff produces an eye-blink –Smelling a grilled steak can produce salivation The reflexive stimulus (UCS) and response (UCR) are unconditioned The neutral stimulus is referred to as the conditioned stimulus (CS) In classical conditioning, the CS is repeatedly paired with the reflexive stimulus (UCS) –Conditioning is best when the CS precedes the UCS Eventually the CS will produce a response (CR) similar to that produced by the UCS

13. Classical Conditioning The Classical Conditioning “paradigm” –“paradigm” is a scientific word similar to using the word “recipe” in a kitchen, I.e., this is how you do it – UCS--------------------->UCR –NS------------->UCS--------------------->UCR –CS------------------------------------------>CR –That’s all there is to it. I’ll show you a fleshed- out example on the next slide

14. Norris Edwards: Chapter 8: Wade08.ppt Page: 14 Classical-conditioning terms can be hard to learn, so be sure to take this quiz before going on. Name the unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, conditioned stimulus, and conditioned response in this situations. Five-year-old Samantha is watching a storm from her window A huge bolt of lightning is followed by a tremendous thunderclap, and Samantha jumps at the noise. This happens several more times. There is a brief lull and then another lightning bolt. Samantha jumps in response to the bolt. US The Thunderclap UR Jumping to the noise CS The lightning CR Jumping to the lightning Name the unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, conditioned stimulus, and conditioned response in this situations. Five-year-old Samantha is watching a storm from her window A huge bolt of lightning is followed by a tremendous thunderclap, and Samantha jumps at the noise. This happens several more times. There is a brief lull and then another lightning bolt. Samantha jumps in response to the bolt. US The Thunderclap UR Jumping to the noise CS The lightning CR Jumping to the lightning

15. Classical Conditioning Here’s a fleshed out example: UCS----------------->UCR – (Thunderclap) ------> (Jumping To The noise) NS--------------->UCS----------------->UCR –(lightning)--->(Thunderclap) -----> (Jumping to The noise) CS---------------------------------------->CR –(Lightning)----------------------------> (Jumping to The lightning)

16. Norris Edwards: Chapter 8: Wade08.ppt Page: 16 Classical-conditioning terms can be hard to learn, so be sure to take this quiz before going on. Name the unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, conditioned stimulus, and conditioned response in this situations. Gregory’s mouth waters whenever he eats anything with lemon in it. One day, while reading an ad that show a big glass of lemonade, Gregory notices his mouth watering. US Taste of Lemon UR Salivation to Lemon CS Picture of Lemonade CR Salivation to picture Name the unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, conditioned stimulus, and conditioned response in this situations. Gregory’s mouth waters whenever he eats anything with lemon in it. One day, while reading an ad that show a big glass of lemonade, Gregory notices his mouth watering. US Taste of Lemon UR Salivation to Lemon CS Picture of Lemonade CR Salivation to picture

17. Classical Conditioning Here’s another example: UCS------------------------->UCR – (Taste of Lemon) ---------> (Salivation to Lemon) NS --------------> UCS ----------------->UCR (Picture of -->(Taste Lemon)--> (Salivation to Lemonade)Lemon) CS ---------------------------------------->CR –(Picture of Lemonade)-----> (Salivation to Picture)

18. Importance of Classical Conditioning Classical conditioning is involved in many of our behaviors –wherever stimuli are paired together over time we come to react to one of them as if the other were present –a particular song is played and you immediately think of a particular romantic partner –a particular cologne is smelled and you immediately think of a romantic partner

19. 19Chapter 6 Applications of Classical Conditioning Flooding: reducing fears, person is continually exposed to harmless stimulus until fear responses to stimulus are eliminated. Systematic Desensitization: gradual technique of reducing fears in which people are taught relaxation techniques. Counter-conditioning: reducing fears by repeatedly pairing a pleasant stimulus with a fearful one. (ice cream and spiders)

20. Classical Conditioning Some pointers on effective conditioning –NS and UCS pairings must not be more than about 1/2 second apart for best results –Repeated NS/UCS pairings are called “training trials” –Presentations of CS without UCS pairings are called “extinction trials” –Intensity of UCS effects how many training trials are necessary for conditioning to occur

21. Norris Edwards: Chapter 8: Wade08.ppt Page: 21 Learning to Fear Just as positive association can be established using classical conditioning, negative associations can also be formed.Just as positive association can be established using classical conditioning, negative associations can also be formed. Watson and Rosalie Rayner (1920) deliberately establishing a rat phobia in an 11 year-old boy named Albert to demonstrate how we learn to fear.Watson and Rosalie Rayner (1920) deliberately establishing a rat phobia in an 11 year-old boy named Albert to demonstrate how we learn to fear. Just as positive association can be established using classical conditioning, negative associations can also be formed.Just as positive association can be established using classical conditioning, negative associations can also be formed. Watson and Rosalie Rayner (1920) deliberately establishing a rat phobia in an 11 year-old boy named Albert to demonstrate how we learn to fear.Watson and Rosalie Rayner (1920) deliberately establishing a rat phobia in an 11 year-old boy named Albert to demonstrate how we learn to fear.

22. Norris Edwards: Chapter 8: Wade08.ppt Page: 22 Watson’s Extreme Environmentalism Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own special world to bring them up in, and I’ll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to be any type of specialist I might select - doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief, and yes, beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors.”“Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own special world to bring them up in, and I’ll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to be any type of specialist I might select - doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief, and yes, beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors.” John Broadus Watson, 1928 Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own special world to bring them up in, and I’ll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to be any type of specialist I might select - doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief, and yes, beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors.”“Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own special world to bring them up in, and I’ll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to be any type of specialist I might select - doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief, and yes, beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors.” John Broadus Watson, 1928

23. Norris Edwards: Chapter 8: Wade08.ppt Page: 23 Operant Conditioning G. Stanley Hall (1899) was conducting a study of anger, and asked a number of people to describe angry episodes they had experienced or observed. One subject describe observing a little girl crying uncontrollably and in midpoint stopping to inquire if her daddy was in. Hall concluded that the little girl had learned from prior experience that such outburst of sobbing would bring her attention. G. Stanley Hall (1899) was conducting a study of anger, and asked a number of people to describe angry episodes they had experienced or observed. One subject describe observing a little girl crying uncontrollably and in midpoint stopping to inquire if her daddy was in. Hall concluded that the little girl had learned from prior experience that such outburst of sobbing would bring her attention.

24. Operant Conditioning: Skinner Box

25. 25Chapter 6 Question: How are the principles of operant conditioning applied? –Programmed Learning – assumes that any task can be broken down into small steps that can be shaped individually and combined to form the more complicated whole –Classroom discipline – using principles of learning to change classroom behavior Section 2: Operant Conditioning APPLICATION OF THE PRINCIPLES OF OPERANT CONDITIONING (continued)

26. 26 Question: How are the principles of operant conditioning applied? APPLICATION OF THE PRINCIPLES OF OPERANT CONDITIONING –Offering of rewards – being positively reinforced –Shaping – a way of teaching complex behaviors in which one first reinforces small steps in the right direction Section 2: Operant Conditioning

27. Operant Conditioning Organisms make responses that have consequences –The consequences serve to increase or decrease the likelihood of making that response again –The response can be associated with cues in the environment We put coins in a machine to obtain food But we refrain when an Out of Order sign is placed on the machine

28. Operant Conditioning Operant conditioning is simply learning from the consequences of your behavior –the “other side” of the psychologist’s tool box, operant conditioning is a form of learning in which the consequences of behavior lead to changes in the probability of a behavior’s occurrence.

29. Key Aspects of Operant Conditioning In operant conditioning, the stimulus is a cue, it does not elicit the response Operant responses are voluntary In operant conditioning, the response elicits a reinforcing stimulus, whereas in classical conditioning, the UCS elicits the reflexive response

31. Key Terms of Operant Conditioning Reinforcement is any procedure that increases the response Punishment is any procedure that decreases the response Types of reinforcers: –Primary: e.g. food or water –Secondary: money or power

32. Operant Conditioning The Operant Conditioning paradigm: DS ------> Response -----> Consequence –where “DS” is the “discriminative stimulus” –where “Response” is the subject’s behavior –where “Consequence” is what happens to the subject after EMITTING the response What consequences can follow a subject’s response?

33. Operant Conditioning Consequences to behavior can be: –nothing happens: extinction –something happens the “something” can be pleasant the “something” can be aversive Consequences include positive and negative reinforcement, time out, and punishment. We’ll examine each of these now.

34. Cognitive Learning Higher-level learning involving thinking, knowing, understanding, and anticipating Latent Learning: Occurs without obvious reinforcement and is not demonstrated until reinforcement is provided Rote Learning: Takes place mechanically, through repetition and memorization, or by learning a set of rules Discovery Learning: Based on insight and understanding

35. Fig. 8.23 Latent learning. (a) The maze used by Tolman and Honzik to demonstrate latent learning by rats. (b) Results of the experiment. Notice the rapid improvement in performance that occurred when food was made available to the previously unreinforced animals. This indicates that learning had occurred, but that it remained hidden or unexpressed. (Adapted from Tolman & Honzik, 1930.)

36. Reinforcement/Punishment

37. Schedules of Reinforcement Continuous: reinforcement occurs after every response –Produces rapid acquisition and is subject to rapid extinction Partial: reinforcement occurs after some, but not all, responses –Responding on a partial reinforcement schedule is more resistant to extinction

38. Partial Reinforcement Schedules Ratio: every nth response is reinforced –Fixed: every nth response –Variable: on average, every nth response Interval: first response after some interval results in reinforcement –Fixed: interval is x in length (e.g. 1 min) –Variable: the average interval is x

39. Reinforcement Schedules

40. Positive Reinforcement What is a reinforcer? –Definition: a reinforcer is any stimulus which, when delivered to a subject, increases the probability that a subject will emit a response. –Primary reinforcers, e.g., food –Secondary reinforcers, e.g., praise –One can only know if a stimulus is a reinforcer based on the increased probability of occurrence of a subject’s behavior

41. Money: a secondary reinforcer

42. Positive Reinforcement What is positive reinforcement? –a procedure where a pleasant stimulus is delivered to a subject contingent upon the subject’s emitting a desired behavior Schedules of reinforcement –reinforcement schedules may be used to decrease the probability that a response pattern in a subject will extinguish

43. Positive Reinforcement Schedules of reinforcement –there are 4 types of reinforcement schedules fixed ratio schedule of reinforcement fixed interval schedule of reinforcement variable ratio schedule of reinforcement variable interval schedule of reinforcement –each of these schedules will produce different response patterns in subjects; the variable ratio schedule best for most resistant to extinction

44. Positive Reinforcement Shaping behaviors –the use of positive reinforcement in the differential reinforcement of successive approximations is called “shaping” –shaping can be used to create a new response pattern in a subject –shaping must be done carefully and one must rely on the differential reinforcement of successive approximations to the target behavior

45. Negative Reinforcement Negative reinforcement –a procedure where an aversive stimulus is removed from a subject contingent upon the subject’s emitting a desired behavior –the reinforcing consequence is the removal or avoidance of an aversive stimulus Escape conditioning: the behavior is reinforced because it stops an aversive stimulus Avoidance conditioning: behavior reinforced because aversive stimulus is prevented

46. Negative Reinforcement Examples of negative reinforcement in the real world include: –taking out the trash to avoid your mother yelling at you –taking an aspirin to get rid of a headache –using a condom to avoid contracting a fatal disease –paying your car insurance on time to prevent cancellation of your policy

47. Punishment

48. Punishment defined –a procedure where an aversive stimulus is presented to a subject contingent upon the subject emitting an undesired behavior. –punishment should be used as a last resort in behavior engineering; positive reinforcement should be used first –examples include spanking, verbal abuse, electrical shock, etc.

49. Punishment Dangers in use of punishment –punishment is often reinforcing to a punisher (resulting in the making of an abuser) –punishment often has a generalized inhibiting effect on the punished individual (they stop doing ANY behavior at all) –we learn to dislike the punisher (a result of classical conditioning)

50. Punishment Dangers in use of punishment –what the punisher thinks is punishment may, in fact, be a reinforcer to the “punished” individual –punishment does not teach more appropriate behavior; it merely stops a behavior from occurring –punishment can cause emotional damage in the punished individual (antisocial behavior)

51. Punishment Dangers in use of punishment –punishment only stops the behavior from occurring in the presence of the punisher; when the punisher is not present then the behavior will often reappear and with a vengeance –the best tool for engineering behavior is positive reinforcement

52. Punishment Guidelines for the effective use of punishment –use the least painful stimulus possible; if you spank your child, do it on the child’s bottom with an open hand never more than twice and NEVER so hard as to leave any marks on your child. That would be classified as child abuse. –reinforce the appropriate behavior to take the place of the inappropriate behavior

53. Punishment Guidelines –make it clear to the individual which behavior you are punishing and remove all threat of punishment immediately as soon as the undesired behavior stops. –do not give punishment mixed with rewards for a given behavior; be consistent! –once you have begun to administer punishment do not back out but use punishment wisely

54. Contrasting Classical and Operant Conditioning Classical conditioning usually involves reflexive behavior (eliciting a response) whereas operant condition involves instrumental behavior (emitting a response) Classical conditioning elicits a response whereas operant conditioning manipulates the probability that a given response will be emitted by the subject.

55. Extinction: the process of unlearning Extinction is the process of unlearning a learned response because of a change on the part of the environment (reinforcement or punishment or stimulus pairing contingencies) Removing the source of learning –in CC, not pairing the NS with the UCS will result in extinction –in OC, not providing consequences causes ext.

56. 56Chapter 6 Question: What are the steps of the PQ4R method of learning? STEPS OF THE PQ4R METHOD OF LEARNING PREVIEW – getting a general picture of what is covered before reading a chapter QUESTION – something in particular that we want to learn READ – reading the material with the purpose of finding answers REFLECT – an important way to understand and remember the material read RECITE- Saying things out load (ABC song) REVIEW- repeat and reread to know Section 4: The PQ4R Method: Learning to Learn

57. Summary of Conditioning

58. 58Chapter 6 Question: What are the key factors of classical conditioning? Stimulus Response Key Factors of Classical Conditioning