1. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. PowerPoint ® Lecture Presentations prepared by Jason LaPres Lone Star College—North Harris 1 An Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology

2. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 1-1 Anatomy and Physiology Directly Affect Your Life Anatomy Study of structures of the body Oldest medical science (1600 B.C.) Physiology Study of how living organisms perform their vital function

3. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Anatomy Gross anatomy, or macroscopic anatomy, examines structures without the use of the microscope Subdivisions ─Regional anatomy: Specific regions of the body. ─Systemic anatomy: Specific system of the body. ─Surface anatomy: Body surface. ─Comparative anatomy: Between different species ─Developmental anatomy: Structural changes from fertilized egg to an adult form.  Embryology: Study of the structural changes from fertilized egg to the eighth week of development.

4. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Microscopic anatomy examines structures not visible to the naked eye Subdivisions ─Histology: study of tissues and their structures ─Cytology: study of cells and their structures Microscopes include Light Microscope: Compound Electron Microscopes: Transmission and Scanning

5. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Physiology is the study of function Subdivisions Neurophysiology: Functions of the nervous system. Endocrinology: Hormones and their control of body functions. Cardiovascular physiology: Functions of heart, blood and blood vessels. Immunology: Body defence. Respiratory physiology: Functions of the lung system. Renal Physiology: Functions of the kidney system. Exercise physiology: Functional changes in the body during exercise. Pathophysiology: Functional changes associated with diseases. Reproductive Physiology: Functions of the reproductive system. https://www.polleverywhere.com/my/polls#!/my/polls

6. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Characteristics of the Human Body Organization: Increasing levels of complexity in structure and function Metabolism: All the chemical reactions (anabolic and catabolic) that occur in the body. Responsiveness and movement: of cells, organs, body parts or the whole body. Homeostasis: Maintenance of stable internal conditions Development : Growth: Increase in body size due to increase in cell number, cell size, or non-living matrix Differentiation: Cells changing from unspecialized to specialized state. Reproduction: Formation of new individual. Evolution: Genetic changes in a population of over time.

7. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 1. Atoms 2. Molecules 3. Organelles 4. Cells 5. Tissues 6. Organs 7. Organ System 8. Organism https://www.polleverywhere.com/my/polls 1-5 Levels of Organization

8. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1-1 Levels of Organization Chemical and Molecular Levels Cellular Level Atoms in combination Complex protein molecule Protein filaments Heart muscle cell Tissue Organ Cardiac muscle tissue The heart The cardiovascular system Organ system Organism

9. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 1-5 The Organ Systems: Integumentary Major Organs Skin Hair Sweat glands Nails Functions Protects against environmental hazards Helps regulate body temperature Provides sensory information Vitamin D production

10. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Skeletal Major Organs Bones Cartilages Associated ligaments Bone marrow Functions Provides support and protection for other tissues Framework for muscles to cause movement Stores calcium and other minerals Forms blood cells

11. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Muscular Major Organs Skeletal muscles and associated tendons Functions Provides movement Provides protection and support for other tissues Generates heat that maintains body temperature

12. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Nervous Major Organs Brain Spinal cord Peripheral nerves Sense organs Functions Provides and interprets sensory information about internal and external conditions Directs immediate responses to stimuli Coordinates or moderates activities of organ systems

13. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Major Organs Pituitary gland Pineal gland Thyroid gland Parathyroid glans Thymus Adrenal gland Pancreas Gonads Endocrine tissues in other systems Functions Directs long-term changes in the activities of other organ systems Adjusts metabolic activity and energy use by the body Controls many structural and functional changes during development Endocrine

14. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Cardiovascular Major Organs Heart Blood Blood vessels Functions Distributes blood cells, water and dissolved materials including nutrients, waste products, oxygen, and carbon dioxide Distributes heat and assists in control of body temperature

15. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Lymphatic Major Organs Spleen Thymus Lymphatic vessels Lymph nodes Tonsils Functions Defends against infection and disease Returns tissue fluids to the bloodstream

16. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Respiratory Major Organs Nasal cavities Sinuses Larynx Trachea Bronchi Lungs Alveoli Functions Delivers air to alveoli in lungs where gas exchange occurs Provides oxygen to bloodstream Removes carbon dioxide from bloodstream Produces sounds for communication

17. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Digestive Major Organs Teeth Tongue Pharynx Esophagus Stomach Small intestine Large intestine Liver Gallbladder Pancreas Functions Processes and digests food Absorbs and conserves water Absorbs nutrients Stores energy reserves

18. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Urinary Major Organs Kidneys Ureters Urinary bladder Urethra Functions Excretes waste products from the blood Controls water balance by regulating volume of urine produced Stores urine prior to voluntary elimination Regulates blood ion concentrations and pH

19. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Reproductive

20. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. https://www.polleverywhere.com/my/polls 1-6 Homeostasis Homeostasis is the ability of the body to maintain a stable internal environment despite changing external conditions  Organ systems responds to external and internal changes to keep body parameters within physiological limits Example: Blood glucose level is kept within narrow range 70- 110/100ml. Body temperature is maintained 37°C. Set point: An ideal normal value. Range: Maintaining functions around the set point.

21. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Systems that Control Homeostasis Nervous system: Controls by sending impulses to the brain and spinal cord and then to the effectors (muscles and glands). Endocrine system: Controls by regulating hormone secretion of the endocrine glands.

22. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Homeostatic Regulatory Mechanism Feedback: A cycle of events by which homeostasis is maintained. Components of a feedback mechanism: Receptor – senses changes in the external and internal environment. Control Center – evaluates the input and dictates the required changes. Effector – makes the required changes.

23. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 1-7 Negative and Positive Feedback Negative feedback opposes variations from normal Positive feedback exaggerates variations from normal

24. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Negative Feedback is a corrective mechanism involving an action that directly opposes a variation from normal limits The response of the effector negates the stimulus Body is brought back into homeostasis Normal range is achieved

25. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1-3 Negative Feedback in the Control of Body Temperature Normal temperature disturbed Information affects RECEPTORS Temperature sensors in skin and hypothalamus HOMEOSTASIS STIMULUS: Body temperature rises Normal body temperature RESPONSE: Increased heat loss, body temperature drops CONTROL CENTER Normal temperature restored EFFECTORS Sweat glands in skin increase secretion Blood vessels in skin dilate Sends commands to Events in the regulation of body temperature, which are comparable to those shown in Figure 1  2. A control center in the brain (the hypothalamus) functions as a thermostat with a set point of 37°C. If body temperature exceeds 37.2°C, heat loss is increased through enhanced blood flow to the skin and increased sweating. The thermoregulatory center keeps body temperature fluctuating within an acceptable range, usually between 36.7 and 37.2°C. Vessels dilate, sweating increases Vessels constrict, sweating decreases Time Body temperature (°C) 37.2 Normal range 37 36.7 Thermoregulatory center in brain

26. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Positive Feedback is where an initial stimulus produces a response which exaggerates or enhances the change in the original condition, creating a positive feedback loop The response of the effector increases change of the stimulus Body is moved away from homeostasis Normal range is lost Used to speed up processes

27. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1-4 Example of Positive Feedback: Blood Clotting Clotting accelerates Positive feedback loop Blood clot Chemicals This escalating process is a positive feedback loop that ends with the formation of a blood clot, which patches the vessel wall and stops the bleeding. As clotting continues, each step releases chemicals that further accelerate the process. The chemicals start chain reactions in which cells, cell fragments, and soluble proteins in the blood begin to form a clot. Damage to cells in the blood vessel wall releases chemicals that begin the process of blood clotting. Chemicals

28. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Example of Positive Feedback: Childbirth

29. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.3 Homeostasis Compensation fails Internal change results in loss of homeostasis Organism in homeostasis Organism attempts to compensate External change Internal change Compensation succeeds Wellness Illness or disease

30. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Homeostasis video Medical Diagnosis Diagnosis : Identification of disease or disorder: Consultation ─Medical or familial history of disease ─Symptoms (subjective changes) or signs (measurable or observable changes) Physical examination ─Vital signs: temperature, pulse, blood pressure, breathing ─Palpation ─Auscultation Laboratory tests ─Urine test ─Blood test ─Biopsy

31. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 1-8 Anatomical Terminology Anatomical position: Standard anatomical reference for the human form. ―Standing upright, feet together flat on ground, toes pointing forward, hands at sides, palms facing forward Supine: lying down, face up Prone: lying down, face down

32. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1-5a Anatomical Landmarks Cephalic or head Frontal or forehead Cranial or skull Facial or face Oral or mouth Mental or chin Axillary or armpit Brachial or arm Antecubital or front of elbow Umbilical or navel Trunk Abdominal (abdomen) Mammary or breast Thoracic or thorax, chest Cervical or neck Buccal or cheek Otic or ear Nasal or nose Ocular, orbital or eye Anterior view

33. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1-5a Anatomical Landmarks Antebrachial or forearm Carpal or wrist Palmar or palm Pollex or thumb Digits (phalanges) or fingers (digital or phalangeal) Patellar or kneecap Crural or leg Digits (phalanges) or toes (digital or phalangeal) Tarsal or ankle Anterior view Hallux or great toe Pedal or foot Femoral or thigh Pubic (pubis) Inguinal or groin Manual or hand Pelvic (pelvis) Trunk

34. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1-5b Anatomical Landmarks Acromial or shoulder Olecranal or back of elbow Dorsal or back Upper limb Cervical or neck Cephalic or head Posterior view

35. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1-5b Anatomical Landmarks Posterior view Lumbar or loin Gluteal or buttock Popliteal or back of knee Sural or calf Calcaneal or heel of foot Plantar or sole of foot Lower limb Upper limb

36. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Anatomical Regions: Body regions Abdominopelvic quadrants Abdominopelvic regions Anatomical Directions Reference terms based on subject

37. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1-6a Abdominopelvic Quadrants and Regions Abdominopelvic quadrants. The four abdominopelvic quadrants are formed by two perpendicular lines that intersect at the navel. The terms for these quadrants, or their abbreviations, are most often used in clinical discussions. Right Upper Quadrant (RUQ) Right Lower Quadrant (RLQ) Left Upper Quadrant (LUQ) Left Lower Quadrant (LLQ)

38. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1-6b Abdominopelvic Quadrants and Regions Right hypochondriac region Right lumbar region Right inguinal region Abdominopelvic regions. The nine abdominopelvic regions provide more precise regional descriptions. Left hypochondriac region Left lumbar region Left inguinal region Epigastric region Umbilical region Hypogastric (pubic) region

39. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1-6c Abdominopelvic Quadrants and Regions Stomach Spleen Urinary bladder Liver Gallbladder Large intestine Small intestine Appendix Anatomical relationships. The relationship between the abdominopelvic quadrants and regions and the locations of the internal organs are shown here. https://www.polleverywhere.com/my/polls

40. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Superior: towards the head. Inferior: away from the head. Anterior/Ventral: Towards the front. Posterior/Dorsal: Towards the back. Medial: towards the midline. Lateral: away from the midline. Proximal: towards the attachment of the limb. Distal: away from the attachment of the limb. http://www.wisc- online.com/objects/ViewObject.aspx ?ID=AP15305 Directional Terms

41. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Directional terms Ipsilateral: On the same side of the body. Contralateral: On opposite sides of the body. Intermediate One structure is between two other structures Superficial: At or close to body surface Deep: Farther away from body surface

42. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Sectional Anatomy Used to study 3 dimensional structure of the body or the body part Plane: an imaginary flat surface passing through the body Section: an actual cut or slice to visualize internal organization and structure

43. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Sagittal : Divides the body or an organ into left and right sides Midsagittal: Through the midline. Equal right and left halves Parasagittal plane/section Away from the midline. Unequal right and left portions

44. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Frontal or Coronal Divides the body into anterior and posterior portions

45. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Transverse or Horizontal Divides the body into superior and inferior portions

46. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1-8 Sectional Planes Frontal plane Transverse plane Sagittal plane

47. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 1-9 Body Cavities Body Cavities are paces within the body that help protect, separate and support internal organs. Posterior or dorsal cavity Cranial cavity: Contains the brain. Vertebral cavity: Contains the spinal cord. Ventral body cavity (coelom) Divided by the diaphragm Thoracic cavity Abdominopelvic cavity https://www.polleverywhere.com/my/polls

48. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Ventral body cavity divisions Acknowledgements:Visual Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology, 1e Martini/Ober THORACIC CAVITY Right lung in right pleural cavity Left lung in left pleural cavity Mediastinum ABDOMINOPELVIC CAVITY Diaphragm The abdominal cavity contains many digestive glands and organs Retroperitoneal area The pelvic cavity contains the urinary bladder, reproductive organs, and the last portion of the digestive tract; BODY CAVITIES THORACIC CAVITY Diaphragm ABDOMINOPELVIC CAVITY

49. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1-9 Relationships among the Subdivisions of the Ventral Body Cavity Provides protection Allows organ movement Linings prevent friction Ventral Body Cavity Thoracic Cavity Surrounded by chest wall and diaphragm Surrounds right lung trachea, esophagus, thymus and major vessels Mediastinum Right Pleural Cavity Peritoneal Cavity Surrounds left lung Subdivides during development into Contains many digestive glands and organs Abdominal Cavity Abdominopelvic Cavity Extends throughout abdominal cavity and into superior portion of pelvic cavity Pelvic Cavity Contains urinary bladder, reproductive organs, last portion of digestive tract, rectum Left Pleural Cavity Pericardial cavity Surrounds heart

50. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1-10a The Body Cavity and Its Subdivisions DORSAL/POSTERIORVENTRAL/ANTERIOR Pleural cavity Pericardial cavity Thoracic cavity Peritoneal cavity Abdominal cavity Pelvic cavity Diaphragm Abdominopelvic cavity Cranial cavity Vertebral cavity http://wps.aw.com/bc_marieb_ehap_9/79/20307/5198647.cw/index.html

51. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Serous Membranes line ventral body cavities and secrete serous fluid into cavity Consist of two continuous layers separated by cavity Visceral layer — covers surface of organ Parietal layer — opposing outer layer that covers inner surface of body wall or chamber Cavity: Potential space between visceral and parietal layers

52. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1-10b The Ventral Body Cavity and Its Subdivisions Visceral pericardium Pericardial cavity Parietal pericardium Heart Air space Balloon

53. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Serous Membranes in Ventral Cavity Pericardium: Surrounds heart  Visceral pericardium  Parietal pericardium Pleura : Surrounds each Lung  Visceral pleura  Parietal pleura Peritoneum: Surrounds most of abdominopelvic cavity  Visceral peritoneum  Parietal peritoneum

54. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. The Abdominopelvic Cavity Retroperitoneal space Area posterior to peritoneum and anterior to muscular body wall Contains pancreas, kidneys, ureters, adrenal glands and parts of the digestive tract