1. Lexico-grammatical means of expressing modality 1. What is modality? 2. Possibilities to express modality 3. Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic 4. References

2. 1. What is modality? Modality is a category of linguistic meaning that has to do with the expression of possibility and necessity. The meaning of a sentence gets modulated. What is true? - What has happened? What may be true? - What ought to be true?

3. 2. Possibilities to express modality 2.1. Verbs and modality 2.2. Adverbs 2.3. Nouns 2.4. Adjectives 2.5. Conditionals

4. 2.1. Verbs and modality Verbs that can function as auxiliary verbs ('helping verbs') can often be used to to indicate a modal meaning. Modal auxiliaries are normally followed by the bare infinitive of the verb, they interact with. Example - You ought to comb your hair. Exceptions: used, (usually) ought, etc.

5. 2.1. Verbs and modality Finite functions only: Modal auxiliaries can only occur as the first element of the verb phrase. They can only occur in nonfinite functions. MODAL VERB PRIMARY VERB FULL VERB *to may to have to eat *(is) maying (is) being (is) eaten *(has) mayed (has) been (has) eaten

6. 2.1. Verbs and modality No 3 rd Person inflection: Modal auxiliaries are not inflected in the 3 rd person singular of the present tense. They have no -s form You must write BUT: You like to write He must write BUT: She likes to write

7. 2.1. Verbs and modality Abnormal time reference: present and past forms of the modal auxiliaries can be used to refer to present and future time. I think he may / might retire next May. Will / would you phone him tomorrow. See in Contrast: *I think he retired next May. *Did you phone him tomorrow?

8. 2.1. Verbs and modality Central modals are used to express modality. Examples: - Peter might be at home. - The bus should stop here. ( can, could, may, might, shall, should, will, would, must ) NONNEGATIVE UNCONTRACTED CONRACTED NEGATIVE NEGATIVE must must not mustn't

9. 2.1. Verbs and modality Marginal modals are used to express modality. Examples: - He ought to be at home until dusk. - She dared to jump over the barrier. ( dare, need, ought to, used to ) Close to the central modals, but not all criteria are fullfilled.

10. 2.1. Verbs and modality Modal idioms can be used to express modality. Some modal idioms are for example: had better, would rather, have got to, be to. Followed by an infinitive. Sometimes preceded with to. Examples - I have got to take the train. - I would rather have a still water.

11. 2.1. Verbs and modality Modal idioms: Have no nonfinite form. Therefore cannot follow other verbs in the verb phrase. *I will have got to leave soon. *The conference has been to take place in Athen.

12. 2.1. Verbs and modality Modal idioms: Contracted verb form followed by not in unacceptable for these two: *I'd not rather leave. *You'd not better resign. Would rather cannot show active-passive synonymy: I'd rather rent the cottage. *The cottage would rather be rent by me.

13. 2.1. Verbs and modality Semi-auxiliaries consist of a set of verb idioms which express modal meaning. They are introduced by one of the Primary verbs HAVE + BE. Examples: - Peter has to be at home. - The bus needs to stop here. No do support: *Ada doesn't be going to win. -> Ada isn't going to win. *Does Ada be going to win? -> Is Ada going to win?

14. 2.1. Verbs and modality Some semi-auxiliaries: be able to be bound to be likely to be supposed to be about to be due to be meant to be willing to be apt to be going to be obliged to have to List is not complete!

15. 2.1. Verbs and modality Catenatives have meanings related to aspect or modality, but are nearer to main verb constructions than semi-auxiliaries. They have do-support similar to main verbs: Sam didn't appear to realize the importance of the problem Examples - He seems to be busy. - The product appears to be as listed.

16. 2.1. Verbs and modality There are also main verbs, that can be used to express modality, when they are combined with a nonfinite clause. For example the main verb hope combined with to and an infinitive. Example - I hope to see you soon.

17. 2.2. Adverbs Some adverbs can express modality. They can be placed - at the beginning of a sentence - in a VP Examples - Maybe I forgot to close the window. - Jack will presumably go to the party.

18. 2.2. Adverbs Some modality adverbs: certainly, maybe, perhaps, possibly, actually, presumably, really, necessarily, hopefully

19. 2.3. Nouns There are nouns that can express modality. They are often followed by a that clause or to + infininitive. Examples - There is a slight possibility, that you get the next train. - The chance to win is not very good in a casino.

20. 2.4. Adjectives Adjectives can also express modality when they are combined with to + infinitive or a that clause. Examples - It is impossible to run 60 miles per hour. - It is essential that you drink enough liquid.

21. 2.5. Conditionals Conditionals can express modality. Examples - If the light is on, he is at home.

22. Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic The meaning of the modal verbs can differ, depending on how / where they are used. They can have intrinsic and extrinsic meanings. These two can also overlap. So the meaning can be somewhere inbetween.

23. Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic intrinsic extrinsic can / could permission possibility, ability may/might

24. Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic intrinsic extrinsic must / need have (got) to obligation necessity should / ought to

25. Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic intrinsic extrinsic will / would volition prediction shall (rare and restricted)

26. 4. References - Quirk et al. (1995): A comprehensive grammar of the English language. Longman, London. - http://mit.edu/fintel/www/modality.pdfhttp://mit.edu/fintel/www/modality.pdf