1. Urban Land Use
Unit 6 Continued

2. Evolution of American City
Robert Crumb drawings
Where did the world’s first city arise?
Same places as hearths of early agriculture (sedentary lifestyles)
Urbanism spread very slowly
In Europe, Athens & Rome grew rapidly during Classical Period; “dark ages” interrupted this
Feudal system: dominated most of Europe, lacked diversity & active trade

3. Ancient Rome & Athens Both Mediterranean countries
Very different terrains
Greek city-states separated by hilly countryside and all were near the water
Rome was inland far fewer hills
 Greek art adorned utilitarian objects; Roman art adorned the living spaces
Both economies were based on agriculture
Both employed social class systems
Governments:
Originally, kings ruled Athens, then an oligarchy (rule by the few), and then democracy (voting by the citizens)
Kings also originally governed Rome. Then  established a mixed Republican form of government, combining elements of democracy, oligarchy, and monarchy; rule by one returned to Rome, new form of Roman emperors
Fall of Athens: mostly Peloponnesian War & distaste of democracy
Fall of Rome

4. Major cities outside of Europe during the Middle Ages
Middle East: BAGHDAD in Iraq, CAIRO in Egypt, and CÓRDOBA in Spain
Far East: Beijing, Nanjing & Hangzhou in China,
Indian subcontinent (southeast Asia): Singapore, Phnom Penh in Cambodia, Kediri in Indonesia, Kathmandu in Nepal
Mesoamerica: Mexico City
South America: Cusco in Peru

5. Renaissance Period: 1350-1650 European culture reborn
Cities became vibrant centers for learning
Urban growth accelerated dramatically after Hundred Years War (ended 1453)
Dublin, Madrid, Prague, Vienna, Amsterdam, Barcelona emerged as leading cities
Colonial Period began during this time-19th century
“God, glory, gold”
Aztec city of Tenochtitlan (present-day Mexico City) richest in world at time (Cortez destroyed with disease)

6. Pre-Industrial Cities
Shared characteristics:
rural settlements surrounding urban space provided agricultural products/food to urban dwellers, who provided economic functions
Served as trade centers & gateways to foreign lands
After fall of Roman Empire they developed decline in development
Colonial Cities-built & developed by colonizers
European drive for land fueled construction
Aim was to export raw resources back to mother country
“Urban-Banana”
By 1500s most cities located in trade centers from London to Tokyo
Formed because of site & situation factors (physical geo & trade routes)
Shops markets, homes, & gov’t jumbled in urban space; economic segregation, elite lived closer to city-center

7. 18th Century Urbanism exploded on global scale
Industrial Revolution in England spread across Western Europe & North America
Centers of manufacturing saw population growth
Social Problems:
Immigrants (cultural diversity) in Gateway Cities (almost all located on coasts)
Great Migration led to Race riots

8. Industrialization & City Structure
1800 only 5% of world’s pop. living cities
% in cities
% in cities
75+% of people in developed countries live in cities; 40% of people in LDCs live in cities
England: 24% urban in 1800, 99% urban by 1999
Second agricultural revolution- more workers moved to cities & improved food supplies
By early 1900s most “great cities” were American or European: Manchester, Chicago, Barcelona
Shock cities: urban areas experiencing infrastructure challenges to due massive & rapid urbanization
Slums, hazardous pollution, deadly fires, urban prostitution, exploitation of children

9. Culture Influencing Urban Form
Urban geography incredibly diverse
Medieval cities densely packed with narrow buildings & winding streets, ornate church is city center
Islamic cities mosques at center, walls guarding perimeter, open-air markets, courtyards & dead-end streets
Latin American, Asia, & African cities cultural monuments, colonial buildings, factories, radiate out like spoke of wheel from central business district
Asia & Africa less developed than Latin America

10. Strained Infrastructure
Important trend in modern urbanization is it diffusion to less developed parts of world & uneven spread
Highest rates of urbanization occurring in LDCs
Urbanization in LDCs focuses on 1-2 major cities rather than spread throughout landscape
Large migration of young adults create high numbers of opportunity- seekers in already strained places
Squatter settlements- unable to find housing, makeshift, unsafe housing is contstructed on others’ lands

11. Urban Systems
Urban places interact with each other and are interdependent, not independent, & exist in spider-web of interacting parts
Geographers analyze spatial distribution of cities and ask why it is the way it is

12. Central Place Theory Walter Christaller
Created in response to von Thunen’s rural land use theory
Looked to explain & predict pattern of urban spaces
Ideal model based on assumptions of flat land surface, uniformly distributed rural population, equal transportation methods, & evolutionary movement towards city growth
Main ideas:
Central places are urban centers providing services to surrounding rural people
Threshold is minimum number of people needed to fuel a function’s existence in a central place (more unique=$$$); donut shop small threshold, hospital large threshold
Range of good or service is max distance person is willing to travel to obtain that service
Spatial competition implies that central places compete with each other for customers

13. Central Place Theory (cont.)
Hexagonal pattern essential to model; von Thunen’s rural model was concentric rings
Vary in degree of thresholds and economic reach
Urban hierarchy
If pop. is evenly dist. there will be hierarchy of evenly spread central places to serve that population
A few cities at the top level and more cities on each lower level
Position of city determined by types of central place functions it provides: the higher position in the hierarchy the higher the pop. being served
Cities’ positions can change
Top tier: Chicago & New York
Second tier: Miami & St. Louis
Rank-Size Rule & Centrality
There is relationship between pop. size and its position in urban hierarchy
In the U.S. the urban system roughly conforms to rank-size rule prediction but some have disproportionately large cities known as primate cities
Buenos Aires is nearly 10 times the size of second-largest city, Rosario
Sometimes when a city dominates economic political and cultural functions more than expected based on pop. Size it has high degree of centrality
Managua’s population accounts for 30% of total pop. But controls nearly 40% of country’s economy

14. World & Megacities

15. World Cities AKA global cities
Powerful cities that control a disproportionately high level of the world’s economic, political, and cultural activities
Can be considered if they dominate different areas of global affairs
Amsterdam- global financial center
Milan-powerful influence over fashion & design

16. Borchert’s Model of Urban Evolution
1960s Samuel Borchert studied cities in U.S. & linked historical changes
Defined 4 classifications of cities based on transportation technology that dominated the era when city hit its initial growth
Stage 1: cities hit growth spurt during “sail-wagon era” , mostly near ports & waterways
Stage 2: “iron horse cities” born & grew around rivers & canals during early industrial years
Stage 3: “steel-rail epoch” cities, hit growth spurt during Industrial Revolution & b/c of steel industry; particularly around Great Lakes
Stage 4: cities born around 1920 and linked to car & air travel; saw growth of new more influential cities in the South

17. Comparing North American Cities
All models posses a Central Business District (CBD)-original core of city’s economy; degree of influence varies
Concentric Zone Model
1920s by E.W. Burgess-first to explain/predict urban growth
Based on growth in Chicago
Can be viewed from above as rings on tree
Invasion and succession/succession migration- new arrivals move to inner rings then push the people already present farther out; zone in transition “skid-row”
Peak land value intersection- CBD; highest real estate prices, land values decrease in all directions outward
Bid-rent curve- predicts land prices & pop. density decline farther from CBD

18. Bid-Rent Curve

19. Comparing North American Cities
Sector Land Use Model
1930s Homer Hoyt discovered twist on concentric zone pattern
Zones of growth based on transportation & linear features (roads/canals) not just zones around CBD
Similar land uses and socioeconomic groups clumped in sectors radiating outwards along transport routes
Industrial activities followed rail lines, lower socioeconomic housing followed public transport, visitor services along major highways

20. Comparing North American Cities
Multiple-Nuclei Model
Late 1040s Chauncy Harris & Edward Ullman
Growth occurred independently around several major focal points rather than 1 CBD
Only loosely connected to CBD; reduced dominance of CBD
Land use zones occur at once and in chunks

21. Comparing North American Cities
The Urban Realms Model
1960s James Vance
Explained urban regions that were mixed-use, suburban downtowns with relative independence from CBD; automobile played major role
Nuclei evolved into independently functioning “urban realms”
All models can be combined to understand a particular city’s urban growth pattern

22. Latin American Cities
Larry Ford & Earnest Griffin; focused on regions colonized by Spain
Most medieval cities laid out in jumbles but 1400s saw rebirth of Renaissance urban design
CBD was more important because very few suburbs existed
Wealth decreases as move outward from CBD
Perifericos- squatter settlements
Zone of in situ- region transitioning towards maturity; development is mix of middle- income & lower-income families
Zone of maturity- services & infrastructural development

23. Counterurbanization & Exurbs
Counterurbanization-increase in rural pop. that result from out-migration residents
1950s saw rise in exurbs (extra-urban areas), wealthier communities that grew just outside of suburbs, traveled by parkways and commuter rails
Telecommuting is modern form; only have to commute info

24. Urban Sprawl
Diffusion of urban land use and lifestyle into formerly non- urban, often agricultural lands
Led to the growth of “edge cities”-self-sufficient, urban villages that often develop at highway exits
Suburbs and edge cities often fight for independence from metropolitan government for own mini gov’ts
If inner-city is mostly occupied by lower socio-economic tax base then amount of taxes it can collect is limited
Uneven development- urban development not spread equally among city’s areas
Uneven dev. often caused by cumulative causation, money flows into areas of greatest profit where development has already been focused rather than to places of greatest need

25. Ghettoization & Gentrification
Ghettos-The growing areas of concentrated poverty
Urban ghettos originally mostly immigrants (Irish, Italians, Germans); since 1950s African American, Hispanic, & Asian ghettos have grown
Real estate developers and banks contributed to growth of urban ghettos & sometimes profited from them:
Blockbusting- when agents use racism to “bust up” block by bringing minority family into predominately white neighborhood then profiting from turn over
Racial steering- agents intentionally or unintentionally steer people to buy a home in neighborhood based on race contributing to patterns
Redlining- banks refuse to give loans to certain minority-occupied neighborhoods that were “redlined”
Gentrification- older, urban zones are “rediscovered & renovated” by people who move back to inner-city from suburban fringes
Brings money into inner urban areas
Many see as great solution to recharging city’s inner core
Critics see it as uneven development; new businesses come in to cater to rich gentrifiers, pushes urban poor from their neighborhoods and divides urban landscape

27. Other Urban Trends
Many European cities work to limit development to particular area by installing a green belt
North American cities have difficult time setting boundaries b/c they attract investors who want to develop these lands
Portland, Oregon has effectively instituted boundary to contain urban sprawl
Neo-Urbanism- movement to bring together trends in healthy living, sustainable growth, and urban development
Planned communities; master-planned housing, walkable pathways, recreational facilities, security features
Health experts encouraging developers to include pedestrian walkways to reduce heart disease due to reliance on transportation
Festival setting such as large waterfront parks’ or recreational areas with marketplace, food, art, etc. ex: Boston’s Faneuil Hall

29. Functional Character of Cities
Basic v. Non-basic jobs
Basic brings employment into urban place and gives city primary function; ex: Flint, MI automobile manufacturing, exported and sent money into Flint’s economy; Chapel Hill, NC dominated by UNC function exports info and knowledge and brings money in
Non-basic are jobs that shift money within the city, not outside the city; responsible for maintaining city’s infrastructure; ex: teachers, janitors, fire departments, dry cleaners
Most cities have same types of non-basic jobs, basic jobs gives city’s sense of identity and unique economy (Mobile as a port city)
North America was once dominated by manufacturing and industrial activities, now more focused on display & consumption; experience “boom and bust” cycles

30. Industrialization & Economic Development
Unit 7
Industrialization & Economic Development

31. Spread of Economics
Economy- system of production, consumption, & distribution in a region
Alfred Weber’s Least Cost Theory, early 20th century
Predict and explain where factories would choose & grow
Commodification of Labor- factory owners looked at human labor as commodities (objects for trade)
By 1920s U.S. automobile factories changed production process into Fordist or Ford method
Built out rather than up
Based on division of labor

32. Agglomeration & Deglomeration
Agglomeration- occurs when industries clump together in same geographic space
Factories in same areas can share costs of resources (electrical lines, roads, pollution control)
Agglomeration economies occur when positive effects of agglomeration result in lower prices for consumers
Localization economies- category of agglomeration econ when firms in same industry benefit, sharing skilled labor talents
Urbanization economies- category of aggl. econ when large pop. of urban areas benefit from clustering b/c they share infrastructural elements (transport systems)
Deglomeration- “unclumping” of factories b/c of negative effects & higher costs associated with industrial overcrowding
Occurs when region becomes too clustered and negatively affects area through pollution, traffic congestions, or strained resources/labor

33. High-Tech Corridor & Technopoles
High-tech corridor- place where technology & computer industries agglomerate
California’s Silicon Valley
Technopole- another name for region of high-tech agglomeration formed by similar high-tech industries looking for shared area to benefit from shared resources
Backwash effects- negative consequences of agglomeration that happen when other areas suffer out-migration (“brain-drain”) of people moving to another hot spot of industry

34. Economic Development Patterns
Development- process of improving material condition of people through growth & diffusion of technology & knowledge
Both MDCs & LDCs have challenges: MDCs face maintaining economic growth, LDCs face improving economic condition
Not based on just how much money the country has but also health care & education
Gross Domestic Product (GDP)- value of total outputs of goods of a country, over a year
GDP per capita is GDP divided by population
Gross National Product (GNP)- includes all goods & services owned and produced by a country overseas
Purchasing Power Parity(PPP)- measurement tool for calculating exchange rates to buy an equal amount of goods

35. Dependency Theory
Argues that LDCs are locked into a cycle of underdevelopment by global economic system that supports unequal structure
Argues political and economic relations among countries limit ability of LDCs to modernize/develop b/c MDCs are dependent on LDCs to remain at the top of world economy
Many countries are poor today b/c of colonization of European nation that extracted valuables but didn’t develop lasting infrastructures

36. Improving Economic Development
Self-sufficiency Approach- to reduce development gap, LDCs must build economies more rapidly
Pushes under-developed countries to proved for their own people, independent of foreign economies
Country should spread investments equally across all regions
Rural areas must develop alongside urban areas
Favors a closed economic state: imports are limited & heavily taxed
Critics argue can stifle competition; leads to less efficiency & less innovation
International Trade (export-oriented) approach- pushes underdeveloped countries to identify what it can offer to the world and build investment on that industry
Eventually country will develop and advantage over rest of world in that good/service
Comparative advantage- when a country is better at producing good/service than other countries
Structural Adjustments- improving LDCs by involving supranational organizations (World Bank & International Monetary Funds) that regulate trade & money supply
Requirements are attached to loans that force countries to make economic changes in order to use the loans
Often force privatization (selling publicly-operated industries to market-driven corporations); can cause hardships
Non-governmental Organizations (NGOs)- run by charities & private organizations to provide supplies, resources, & money; ex: Doctor’s Without Borders