1. Language

2. Language Origins The Danish linguist Otto Jesperson (1860-1943) classified theories language origin into five groups: 1.“Bow-Wow” People imitate sounds from their environment 2. “Pooh-Pooh” People make instinctive sounds related to emotions, body functions, pain 3. “Ding-Dong” People make “oral gestures” 4. “La-La” People work together and produce rhythmic sounds 5. People make sounds associated with love, play and singing

3. Language is universal No human group anywhere has ever been found that does not have a spoken language. There are, of course, many languages that do not have a written form. There are occasional physically normal individuals, “wolf children,” who have no language at all.

4. Language is fundamental Language is crucial for social interaction, and to express complex emotions and ideas. Language lets us deal with – and even try to control – the world around us: Naming Faith, magic and the supernatural Language is fundamental to who we are – our identity.

5. Languages come in families A language family is a group of languages which are descended from a single common earlier language (just as brothers and sisters are descended from common parents). How many languages are there? Not an easy question to answer. Living and Dead Languages (Italian vs. Latin) Revivals (Hebrew – from living to dead to living again) New Discoveries (Amazon, Papua New Guinea, Africa, etc.) “Languages” and “Dialects” (see below – hard to define!) How many language families are there? Families are constructed on the basis of similarities in vocabulary, phonology and grammar. Lots of disputes about what is and what isn’t significant – and lots of variation in the numbers. Maybe as many as 100 families? Or…?

6. Language families have… Branches : “a collection of languages related through a common ancestor several thousand years ago. Differences are not as extensive or as old as with language families.” Example: Indo-European family has eight (surviving) branches: Germanic (ex. German, Danish, English) Romance (ex. Italian, French, Romanian) Balto-Slavic (ex. Lithuanian, Russian, Polish) Indo-Iranian (ex. Farsi, Kurdish) Greek (ex. Greek) Albanian (ex. Albanian) Armenian (ex. Armenian) Celtic (ex. Irish, Breton, Welsh)

8. Major language families (families with more than 100,000,000 speakers ) Indo-European (ex. English, Russian, Farsi, Hindi) About 3 billion speakers; originally Europe-Asia, now worldwide Sino-Tibeta n (ex. Chinese, Tibetan) About 1.5 billion speakers; mostly in China and surrounding areas. Afro-Asiati c (also called “Hamitic-Semitic”) (ex. Arabic, Hebrew) Almost ½ billion speakers; mostly in North Africa & SouthwestAsia. Austronesian (also called “Malayo-Polynesian”) (ex. Hawaiian, Malagasy) More than ¼ billion speakers; Pacific Ocean to Madagascar. Dravidian (ex. Tamil, Malayalam) About ¼ billion speakers; Southern India. Niger-Congo (ex. Yoruba, Swahili) About 200,000,000 speakers; Sub-Saharan Africa. Altaic (ex. Turkish, Mongol) About 200,000,000 speakers; Turkey to Mongolia. Japanese (ex. Japanese!) About 125,000,000 speakers; Japan

14. Language Groups “a collection of languages within a branch that share a common origin in the relatively recent past and display relatively few differences in grammar and vocabulary” – For example, both English and Danish are in the Germanic branch, but English is in the West Germanic Group, while Danish is in the North Germanic Group.

16. Western Indo-European

17. Eastern Indo-European

22. Indo-European: mutual comprehension? Consider all of the following: English: “Our Father, who art in heaven …” Dutch: “Onze Vader, die in de hemelen zijt …” Spanish: “Padre nuestro, qe estás en los cielos …” Polish: “Ojcze nasz, którys jest w niebiesiech …” Greek: “Patera mas, poù eïsai stoùs ouranoùs …” Albanian: “Ati ynë që je në quiell …” Kurdish: “Yä bäwk-ï ëma, ka la äsmän-ä-y …” Romany: “Dáde amaré, kaj isién k’o devlé …” Sanskrit: “Bho asmäkham svargastha pitah …” Notice the similarities (for example: “pitah,” “patera,” “padre”; or “father,” “vader,” “dáde”) and differences.

23. KNOW the three major theories of how Indo-European Spread http://www.humanjourney.us/indoEurope2.html

24. The Kurgan Hypothesis The most popular current theory is the ‘Pontic steppe’ or ‘Kurgan’ hypothesis, whose chief proponent was the late Lithuanian-born American archaeologist Maria Gimbutas. The early Indo-Europeans are identified with warrior pastoralists who built kurgan (i.e. burial mounds) in the steppes to the north of the Black and Caspian Seas in what is now southern Russia and the Ukraine. Commencing about 6,000 years ago, and coinciding with the taming of the horse, these Copper Age people expanded from their homeland in a number of waves, overwhelming the Neolithic farmers of Europe, then conquering Central Asia, India and later the Balkans and Anatolia. The Kurgan people took their language with them, giving rise to a secondary homeland of the Celtic, Italic, Germanic, Balto-Slavic, Greek and other European branches, while conquests in the south and east produced the various Indo-European languages of India, Persia and Asia Minor. By 5,000 years ago, most pre-existing languages were erased and various independent Indo-European language groups and cultures had started to develop. This process continued over the ensuing millennia www.youtube.com/watch?v=y_PZPpWTRTU

26. The Anatolian Hypothesis This theory, proposed by archaeologist Colin Renfrew at Cambridge University, holds that the Indo-European languages were spread not by marauding horsemen from the Caucuses but with the expansion of agriculture from Anatolia between 8000 and 9500 years ago. Radiocarbon analysis of the earliest Neolithic sites across Europe provides a fairly detailed chronology of agricultural dispersal. This archaeological evidence indicates that agriculture spread from Anatolia, arriving in Greece at some time during the seventh millennium BC and reaching as far as the British Isles by 5500 years ago Renfrew maintains that the linguistic argument for the Kurgan theory is based on only limited evidence for a few enigmatic early Indo-European word forms. He points out that parallel semantic shifts or widespread borrowing can produce similar word forms across different languages without requiring that an ancestral term was present in a proto-language. Renfrew also challenges the idea that Kurgan social structure and technology was sufficiently advanced to allow them to conquer whole continents in a time when even small cities did not exist. Far more credible, he argues, is that Proto-Indo-European spread with the spread of agriculture – a scenario that is also thought to have occurred across the Pacific, Southeast Asia and sub-Saharan Africa.

29. The Paleolithic Continuity Theory Proponents argue that the appearance of Indo-Europeans coincides with the first regional settlement of Homo sapiens sapiens in the Middle/Upper Paleolithic. The latest research demonstrates that 80% of European genetic stock reaches back to Paleolithic times. In addition, both archaeologists and linguists now concur on a Paleolithic origin of Uralic people and languages in Eurasia: Uralic people are the descendants of Homo sapiens sapiens coming from Africa. They would have occupied mid-eastern Europe in Paleolithic glacial times, and during the deglaciation of Northern Europe in the Mesolithic era would have followed the retreating ice cap, eventually settling in their presently found sites. This theory proposes that Indo-Europeans arrived in Europe tens of thousands of years ago, and that by the end of the Ice Age had already differentiated into local language speakers occupying territories within or close to their now-traditional homelands. It also suggests that the glaciers that compartmentalized Europe during the Ice Age may actually have been the mechanism for this process of differentiation of Indo-European into its component languages.

30. 8000-7000 BC : PIE tribes in northwest Anatolia adopt agriculture, but as they are strong and well organized, they did not take over the language of the Syrian farmers. The new PIE farmers migrate to Greece and spread over the Greek east coast. The technology spreads to the northwest, following the Black Sea coastline. The population in that region speaks a similar language (PIE), so the acceptance of agriculture happens without problems. The PIE language itself becomes more uniform. 7000-5800 BC : spread to the west; most of the Balkan, Bulgaria, Romania, Serbia accept agriculture and the new PIE language. Each new farmer generation follows the Danube upstream in search of new land. They bring PIE to populations situated to the west of the Hungarian plain. There PIE and agriculture is adopted without hindrance and quickly evolves into proto-German. In Romania, Bosnia, Croatia and Albania, the precursor of Occitan develops. Proto-German and proto-Occitan are at that stage new but strong dialects of PIE. Both populations can still understand each other with some difficulty. 5800-4800 BC : using the Danube/Rhine axis the farmers arrived in the Moselle valley in 5000 BC and a bit later on the shores of the North Sea. Germany preceded France in adopting agriculture by 1000 years. The east coasts of Italy, Spain and the southeast of France also discovered agriculture around 5000 BC. This spread happened probably by boat. Farmers in boats came from a certain spot on the east Adriatic coast where a sort of proto-Albanian was spoken (in white on the map). Mixed with local languages, this gave birth to the Occitan- Romance languages in the west Mediterranean region. 4800-1800 BC : West Spain, France, Britain, Scandinavia eventually followed. Although its origin is still mysterious, Brythonic developed probably in Portugal where PIE imposed itself upon an unknown language. This local language influenced Brythonic and gave it its typical sounds. Farmers, always looking for new land, exported the language while sailing north, following the Atlantic coast, eventually ending in west Britain. Once settled on these coasts, Brythonic began slowly to diversify into Breton, Cornish, Welsh, Gaelic, etc. In eastern Europe, the Slavonic PIE variant spread to the north (Poland) and on the Pontic steppe (Ukraine and south Russia). Much later the Slavonic language would also fan out to the west, into Serbia and the Balkan region. The Germanic-like languages in the Balkan gradually disappeared. Around 4000 BC, the horse is domesticated in the Pontic steppe. The horse, cart and wheel brought a great wealth. This horse folk is called today 'Kurgan people' and expanded around 3000 BC in all directions, eventually up to northern Pakistan and northern India. They brought with them a variant of proto-Slavonic. http://www.proto-english.org/o3.html

31. Genetic Similarity of human DNA marker: Objections to Continuity Theory from the mainstream of historical linguistics holds that a) genetic continuity does not imply linguistic continuity, and b) the time required for linguistic change proposed by the Continuity Theory exceeds broadly held time estimates for linguistic change by a factor of at least 500%

32. So which is it? The ancient environmental records suggest that at various times over the last 15,000 years, major changes in hunter-gatherer populations are likely to have occurred over large areas due to climatic changes. It may be that an initial wave of re-colonizing hunter-gatherers carried this group of languages out of the Ice Age refuges into central Europe and western Asia, with the later spread of farming and migrations of warrior cultures resulting in a further linguistic dispersion. The general hypothesis that past climate changes strongly affected linguistic patterns can also merge into more traditional explanations; sudden climate change could have been the primary cause of migrations of Indo-European speaking Neolithic farmers or horse-riding warriors. If it can be assumed that technology words such as ‘wheel’ and ‘copper’ were initially present at the point of divergence of Indo-European languages, then this dates the 8,200 years ago climate event as the time for migrations of farming groups or of horse-riding warriors. The competing theories can be manipulated both to show that they are incompatible and to show that they can be complimentary. Whatever the truth might be about Indo-European languages, the genetic evidence strongly indicates that the Indo-European speaking peoples of Europe have been present since their ancestors arrived from Africa via southwest Asia.

33. Spread of Indo-European Languages

35. Dark Green: the areas with Indo European as main language, Light Green: areas with minority Indo European speakers but has official status Note: Basque, Hungarian, and Finnish are example of non-IE languages in Europe

36. English: the good Most widely spoken language, global dominance of media, internet. No gender, number or case changes; easy formation of plurals. Relatively simple verb forms (except for irregular verbs). Huge, flexible vocabulary. Lingua Franca in the Global Market.

37. English : the bad Idiomatic verb and preposition combinations (“put up,” “get down”) Irregular plurals (ox and oxen; foot and feet, etc.) Spelling (25% irregular, 27 graphemes vs. 40 phonemes) Bizarre written forms: “Though the rough cough and hiccough plough me through, I ought to cross the lough.” No rules for pronunciation and stress Polish vs. polish; dove vs. dove; to, too, two; there, their, they’re

38. For example We polish the Polish furniture. A farm can produce produce. The dump was so full it had to refuse refuse. The soldier decided to desert in the desert. The present is a good time to present the present. The dove dove into the bushes. I did not object to the object. The insurance for the invalid was invalid. The bandage was wound around the wound. They were too close to the door to close it. The buck does funny things when the does are present. To help with planting, the farmer taught his sow to sow. After a number of Novocain injections, my jaw got number. I shed a tear when I saw the tear in my clothes. I had to subject the subject to a series of tests. I spent last evening evening out a pile of dirt.

39. Language, dialect, accent Standard Language : Accepted norms of syntax, vocabulary and pronunciation. Dialect : A recognizable speech variant. Accent : A distinctive way of speaking typical of a group or a region. Accents can be distinctive in terms of Pronunciation Tone Inflection Word choice

40. US Dialects

41. (above): map of social network dialect (left): map of dialects of the eastern coastal area of USA Why so many dialects? Will they remain?

42. ( counterclockwise from top right): France, Italy, Netherlands and the British Isles. How were these dialects formed? What causes their retention? Will these dialects remain in 100 years?

43. Dialects in the US Isolation (physical and political) created differences in vocabulary, spelling and pronunciation. Today, US dialects are most pronounced in the East, and there are at least three main groups (and perhaps five): NORTHERN MIDLAND SOUTHERN (some break this down further, into Upland, Gulf andCoastal Southern dialects)

44. “Ebonics” Also known as “Black English Vernacular” & “African-American Vernacular English ” The Concept - Students and teachers need to understand each other. -Some African-American children’s English is so different from standard English they cannot be understood by their teachers. -Schools often treat such children as sloppy, wrong or stupid. -Schools should help children to learn standard English by building on the language they already have, and treat that language as distinct and worthy, not “wrong.” Basically Urban, much of the political aspect was in California.

45. The Top 20 US Languages (after English) Spanish 28,101,052 Chinese 2,022,143 French 1,643,838 German 1,382,613 Tagalog 1,224,241 Vietnamese 1,009,627 Italian 1,008,370 Korean 894,063 Russian 706,242 Polish 667,414 Arabic 614,582 Portuguese 564,630 Japanese 477,997 French Creole 453,368 Greek 365,436 Hindi 317,057 Persian 312,085 Urdu 262,900 Gujarathi 235,988 Armenian 202,708 Navajo is the Native American language with the largest number of speakers in the US today – 178,014.

46. Mixing languages: Languages that are in contact often begin to blend together (pidgins, creoles, “Franglais,” “Spanglish,” etc.). Lingua franca: A major language used over a large area for commerce and diplomacy (Latin, English, etc.). Multilingualism: Knowing and using more than one language. Artificial language: A constructed language which is supposed to be logical, practical and easy to learn (Esperanto, Klingon, etc.). Translation: Words and concepts expressed in one language are rendered more-or-less faithfully in another. Interpretation: A less literal translation, emphasizing overall meaning.

47. Mixing languages Languages that come in contact always mix and borrow from each other. Examples: SPANGLISH Dolores dice: Need advice? Escríbeme. (on the home page for theonline magazine Latina) Tengo que ir al bus stop para pick up mi hija. (overheard in the Western US) JAPLISH (also known as ENGRISH) BRANDO NEW! (brochure rack in Shiga) NOTICE: We have touched at point in under the boxes heads, for keeping qualities. It's very excuse. (notice above the door of a Yutaka drugstore)

48. Pidgins and creoles Pidgin: A system of communication developed among people who do not share a common language but need to talk for trading or other reasons. -Limited vocabulary -Simplified grammatical structure -Narrow range of functions, expressions -Usually short useful lifespan -“Nobody’s native language” Creole: A language which has been created by blending together elements of two or more other languages; a pidgin which has become anative language.

49. – Haitian Creole or Kreyòl ayisyen, is a language spoken primarily in Haiti. It is the largest French-derived language in the world, with a total of 12 million fluent speakers. It is also the most-spoken Creole language in the world. – Louisiana Creole (Kréyol la Lwizyàn, locally called Kourí-Viní), the Louisiana creole, derived primarily from Haitian Creole,. French Creole

50. PortugueseCreoles Africa: Guinea-Bissau Creole (Kriol): lingua franca of Guinea- Bissau, also spoken in Casamance, Senegal and in Gambia. Cape Verdean Creole (Kriolu, Kriol): a dialect continuum spoken on the islands of Cape Verde, with some decreolization. American: Papiamento: spoken in Aruba, Bonaire and Curaçao; Spanish/Portuguese (60%), Dutch (25%), African and Arawak (15%). Saramaccan: spoken in Suriname; English, Portuguese, African (20%). India: (almost extinct): in Diu. DamaDiu Indo-Portuguese n Indo-Portuguese (Língua da Casa): in Daman. Kristi: in Korlai, Maharashtra.

51. English Creoles Hawaiian Pidgin: Hawaiian Pidgin began as a pidgin used in the early European colonization of the Hawaiian Islands. English served as the superstrate language, with Chinese, Japanese, Filipino, Portuguese, and Hawaiian elements incorporated. Children started using it as a lingua franca, and by the 1920s it had creolized and become a language of Hawaii, as it still is today. Nigerian Pidgin: While regimentally spoken all over Nigeria, English is the accepted language of transaction and communication. The Nigerian Pidgin dates back to the colonial era, where locals were hired to work with the British colonials and ended up developing it to the Creole language it is today Belizean Kriol: Most live in Belize City, but nearly everyone else in Belize is either a first- or second-language speaker of Kriol. It is the lingua franca in much of the country Jamaican Patois: Not to be confused with Jamaican Standard English, which is a dialect of English. Jamaican Patois (sometimes called Jamaican Creole) is an English-based Creole language spoken in Jamaica. Gullah: Gullah is an English-based Creole spoken in the Sea Islands and the adjacent coastal regions of South Carolina, Georgia and northern Florida.

52. Arabic Creoles Nubi: An Arabic-based creole spoken by descendants of Sudanese soldiers mainly in Kenya and Uganda, formed in the nineteenth century from a Sudanese Arabic- based pidgin used for intercommunication among Southern Sudanese ethnic groups. Juba Arabic: An Arabic-based pidgin or creole, spoken mainly in Equatoria Province in Southern Sudan Babalia Creole Arabic: A Shuwa Arabic-based creole spoken in 23 villages of the Chari-Baguirmi Prefecture in southwestern Chad; the substrate language was Berakou.

53. Lingua franca A “lingua franca” is any widely-used language used for commerce, diplomacy, science and technology. Lingua francas are often second languages, and may be a mixture of several languages. Historically, a number of languages have served as lingua franca: Koine Greek (ancient Eastern Mediterranean) Swahili (Eastern Africa) French (international diplomacy) English (worldwide today in science, commerce, politics, literature)

54. Language and culture: change and stability Change: technology and new ways of living -Changes in technology require a new vocabulary -Changes in ways of living require a new vocabulary Stability: institutions -Education (all educated people are taught “proper” language) -Law (legal terms are very slow to change, and affect language) -Religion (religious terms are even slower to change) -Financial Advantage (better language skills = better paid) -Status (different social groups speak differently)

55. Language Reconstruction would use roots like this

56. Types of toponyms: Commemorative (explorers; famous people; other places). Natural features (Colorado, Florida, Long Beach). Special Sites (military; religious; historical). Other: Animals & Plants (Chicken AK, Redwood City CA). See the others in the book

57. First Language and Official Language

58. Should there be an official language? -The rules need to be the same for every one - You can’t translate one language exactly to another -Peoples ideas of right and wrong are impacted by their language (since words are symbols) -Just makes it easier on everyone for contracts, etc. -can force a type of unity and force people to assimilate faster Politics and Language

59. Especially in countries that have been colonized: – Excludes minorities – Keeps certain groups in power (see European colonial strategy in Africa) (associated with power relationships) – Gives nationalistic minority groups a cause that is easily recognizable and popular – Can cause balkanization* and devolution** ______________ *stresses that can tear countries apart ** the physical breakdown of a country How could an official language be bad?

60. How can you use a language as a political tool? Probably the best example of using language as a tool was in the colonization of Africa – After the American revolution (as well as other the other revolutions in Latin America) it was apparent that they needed to rethink their colonial strategy. – The colonizers figured out it was safer for them to remain in compounds and basically set the inhabitants off on one another – Since Africans were still very tribal and spoke different languages this was easy to do – You set up multiethnic colonies and choose one of the smaller ethnicities to be the educated/elite class – This small group was indebted to you and since they protected you, you would do what the colonizer asked – If the other Ethnicities complained colonizers had a ready scapegoat Politics and Language

61. European Colonial Strategy in Africa Impact of colonization and multilinguistic countries in Africa -countries chosen to show impact of: French in Burkina Belgium in Congo Portuguese in Mozambique British in Kenya Doesn’t seem to matter who colonized these are present countries colonized by Europeans in the African Scramble.

62. African Scramble The French and British have always been rivals. After the Napoleonic War the French decided to compete with British for control of parts of Africa. The French colonies were in basically in North Africa, the British colonies were scattered. Other countries were quick to make their own claims as you can see on the 1890 map of Africa on the right. Note that none of the colonies were landlocked.. Why?

63. Do the colonies match the language groups?

64. Burkina Faso Ethnic Groups C.I.A. 1968

65. The Treaty of Tordesillas -was intended to resolve the dispute that had been created following the return of Christopher Columbus. In 1481, a papal bull* had granted all land south of the Canary Islands to Portugal. On 4 May 1493 the Spanish-born Pope Alexander VI decreed in another bull that all lands west and south of a pole-to-pole line 100 leagues west and south of any of the islands of the Azores or the Cape Verde Islands should belong to Spain, although territory under Christian rule as of Christmas 1492 would remain untouched. The bull did not mention Portugal or its lands, so Portugal couldn't claim newly discovered lands even if they were east of the line. Another bull, dated 25 September 1493, gave all mainlands and islands then belonging to India to Spain, even if east of the line. The Portuguese King John II opened negotiations with Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain to move the line to the west and allow him to claim newly discovered lands east of the line. The treaty effectively countered the bulls of Alexander VI and was sanctioned by Pope Julius II via the bull of 24 January 1506

67. Multi-Language Origin Myth: Hebrew One of the most well known examples in the West is the Tower of Babel passage from Genesis in the Bible or Torah. The passage, common to the Abrahamic faiths with the exception of Islam, tells of God punishing humanity for arrogance and disobedience by means of the confusion of tongues. – And the LORD said, Behold, the people is one, and they have all one language; and this they begin to do: and now nothing will be restrained from them, which they have imagined to do. Go to, let us go down, and there confound their language, that they may not understand one another's speech.

68. Multi-Language Origin Myth: India A Hindu myth tells of how not only differences in language, but also diversity in culture, or customs came into being, by the punishment of a proud tree, by the creator-god Brahma. – There grew in the centre of the earth the wonderful `world tree,' or `knowledge tree.' It was so tall that it reached almost to heaven. It said in its heart, `I shall hold my head in heaven and spread my branches over all the earth, and gather all men together under my shadow, and protect them, and prevent them from separating.' But Brahma, to punish the pride of the tree, cut off its branches and cast them down on the earth, when they sprang up as wata trees, and made differences of belief and speech and customs to prevail on the earth, to disperse men upon its surface.

69. Multi-Language Origin Myth: Meso-America The Aztecs' story maintains that only a man, Coxcox, and a woman, Xochiquetzal, survive, having floated on a piece of bark. They found themselves on land and begot many children who were at first born unable to speak, but subsequently, upon the arrival of a dove were endowed with language, although each one was given a different speech such that they could not understand one another. Multi-Language Origin Myth: North America A Salishan myth tells how an argument lead to the divergence of languages. Two people were arguing whether the high-pitched humming noise that accompanies ducks in flight is from air passing through the beak or from the flapping of wings. The argument is not settled by the chief, who then calls a council of all the leading people from nearby villages. This council breaks down in argument when nobody can agree, and eventually the dispute leads to a split where some people move far away. Over time they slowly began to speak differently, and eventually other languages were formed.

70. Multi-Language Origin Myth: Bantu The Wa-Sania, a Bantu people of East African origin have a tale that in the beginning, the peoples of the earth knew only one language, but during a severe famine, a madness struck the people, causing them to wander in all directions, jabbering strange words, and this is how different languages came about. A people of Encounter Bay tell a story of how diversity in language came about from cannibalism: In remote time an old woman, named Wurruri lived towards the east and generally walked with a large stick in her hand, to scatter the fires around which others were sleeping, Wurruri at length died. Greatly delighted at this circumstance, they sent messengers in all directions to give notice of her death; men, women and children came, not to lament, but to show their joy. The Raminjerar were the first who fell upon the corpse and began eating the flesh, and immediately began to speak intelligibly. The other tribes to the eastward arriving later, ate the contents of the intestines, which caused them to speak a language slightly different. The northern tribes came last and devoured the intestines and all that remained, and immediately spoke a language differing still more from that of the Raminjerar. Multi-Language Origin Myth: Australia

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