The Fate of Silicon Technology: Silicon Transistors Maria Bucukovska Scott Crawford Everett Comfort

Metal-oxide-semiconductor (MOS) transistor Used primarily as a switch in digital devices Has 3 electrodes: source, gate and drain Consists of semiconductor substrate: silicon Gate Oxide: separates Silicon form the electrodes courses/engri111/transist.htm

Electron flow between source and drain is controlled by altering the gate voltage This allows Si to act either as a conductor or an insulator Therefore, the transistor can store an on/off signal If the voltage at the gate electrode is "on" the transistor is also "on", and current flow between the source and drain electrodes is possible with negligible losses. If the voltage at the gate electrode is "off", the transistor is also "off", and no current flows between the source and drain electrode.

Superiority of Silicon over other semiconductors due to its oxide Silicon dioxide : Has good insulating properties Has good insulating properties Can be removed easily, greatly simplifying the fabrication of integrated circuits Can be removed easily, greatly simplifying the fabrication of integrated circuits

1950’s: Si emerged as choice material for transistors : transistors began being mass produced; many transistors could be interconnected on a Si surface using photolithography 1960: First MOS transistor developed 1971: Intel fabricated its first transistor-based single-chip microprocessor: the four-bit “Intel 4004” Size of the MOS transistor was 10 μm Size of the MOS transistor was 10 μm 2300 transistors integrated onto the Intel chip 2300 transistors integrated onto the Intel chip (1950’s-1970’s)

Gordon Moore of Intel predicted a trend in the density of microchips (heavily based on transistor size) Predicted that the number of components that could be crammed into an integrated circuit would double every 2 years for the near future Highly based on transistors and reducing the gate length His theory should continue for the next two decades, but after that, the manufacturing techniques of Silicon used today will no longer be possible to sustain the exponential trend Moore’s law is coming to an end due to fundamental physical limitations Challenge: Find a way to connect nano-scale transistors to make giga-scale circuits

Overall, the transistor has evolved in 2 ways: Has become much smaller; most modern devices measure a thousandth of the original size Has become much smaller; most modern devices measure a thousandth of the original size The number of transistors that can be interconnected on a single chip has increased from a few tens to hundreds of millions The number of transistors that can be interconnected on a single chip has increased from a few tens to hundreds of millions The advance in microelectronics is heavily based on reducing the gate length, which is the distance between the source and drain contacts -Today, transistors have gate lengths of less than 50 nm Presently, the latest Intel microprocessor uses more than half a billion transistors on a single chip, each one is 45 nm in size, squeezed onto single chip of area 3cm 2 4 Gb chips are in production today 16 Gb chips are being developed currently, which will contain 160 billion transistors

Today’s Predictions: Every 6 years, the gate length of the MOS transistor will be halved: 37 nm in 2004, 18nm in 2010, and 9 nm by 2016 Every 6 years, the gate length of the MOS transistor will be halved: 37 nm in 2004, 18nm in 2010, and 9 nm by 2016 In accordance with Moore’s Law, the number of transistors on a chip will continue doubling every 2 years up to 20 years In accordance with Moore’s Law, the number of transistors on a chip will continue doubling every 2 years up to 20 years Single-electron transistors based on quantum dots are in existence today (1 nm in size), but they are difficult to make and even harder to connect in large numbers Single-electron transistors based on quantum dots are in existence today (1 nm in size), but they are difficult to make and even harder to connect in large numbers Soon we will start to develop quantum devices that operate on spin rather than electron charge-transistors could be smaller than 1 nm in size Soon we will start to develop quantum devices that operate on spin rather than electron charge-transistors could be smaller than 1 nm in size

Building a transistor with a gate length less than 10 nm: Obstacle = gate oxide must have large enough capacitance to allow for proper control of current Obstacle = gate oxide must have large enough capacitance to allow for proper control of current To overcome this challenge, the thickness of the oxide must be reduced from 1.2 nm to 0.7 nm, reducing the gate length This means using just 2 atomic layers, which is the ultimate manufacturing limit of bulk silicon oxide Alternative option to avoid this limit: use substance with higher dielectric constant than silicon oxide- Ex-hafnium-oxide film can have the same capacitance as silicon oxide, but it can be up to five times thicker

Another obstacle: the short-channel effect Another obstacle: the short-channel effect In ultra short channels, electron tunneling from the source to the drain occurs (even when transistor is off) In ultra short channels, electron tunneling from the source to the drain occurs (even when transistor is off) This results in a large leakage current which is usually suppressed by increasing the doping concentration in the channel region This results in a large leakage current which is usually suppressed by increasing the doping concentration in the channel region However, when utilizing devices smaller than 100 nm in size, increased doping results in decreased channel mobility However, when utilizing devices smaller than 100 nm in size, increased doping results in decreased channel mobility This decreases the performance of the transistor This decreases the performance of the transistor

Possible Solution: the double-gate MOS field effect transistor Geometry of double-gate allows more control over electrostatic potential of the channel, meaning short- channel effects can be reduced Geometry of double-gate allows more control over electrostatic potential of the channel, meaning short- channel effects can be reduced Therefore, there will be a lowered degree of channel doping, and consequently shorter gate lengths can be achieved Therefore, there will be a lowered degree of channel doping, and consequently shorter gate lengths can be achieved VS. Normal MOS transistorDouble-gate MOS transistor “Silicon Microelectronics.” Physics World. September 2005

Speed is also a factor in addition to size, in effective silicon transistors Speed is also a factor in addition to size, in effective silicon transistors “Strained silicon” is a stretched lattice of silicon that allows faster electron flow with less resistance. Therefore faster transistors. “Strained silicon” is a stretched lattice of silicon that allows faster electron flow with less resistance. Therefore faster transistors. Intel is developing a tri-gate transistor to improve similar-sized transistors but with 3 times the active transistor area. Current flows along the top face and side walls of the transistor. Intel is developing a tri-gate transistor to improve similar-sized transistors but with 3 times the active transistor area. Current flows along the top face and side walls of the transistor.

Despite the effectiveness of the silicon transistor in nanotechnologies it seems as though the room for improvement grows slim as the limitations of the perhaps outdated material become more prevalent. Future technologies may require different materials to continue the “shrinking” trend of transistors, whether it means adding new materials with silicon technologies or replacing them indefinitely. Despite the effectiveness of the silicon transistor in nanotechnologies it seems as though the room for improvement grows slim as the limitations of the perhaps outdated material become more prevalent. Future technologies may require different materials to continue the “shrinking” trend of transistors, whether it means adding new materials with silicon technologies or replacing them indefinitely.