Perception and Personality

Perception, Attribution and Learning 1

The Perception Process ATTENTION The Perceived The Perceiver ORGANIZATION Patterns Schemas Scripts PERCEPTION 5

Comprehending Perception We all have a different store of knowledge. We all therefore interpret the world around us differently. Understanding relies upon the speaker and his audience having the same perception of the required outcome.

Perception is a 'Learned Experience' It is the “awareness” of the external world (or some aspect of it, through one or more of our senses and, the interpretation of these by our mind.

Understanding Understanding is achieved by interpreting current experience using past experience as a source of reference, and establishing a context upon which to base this new information. In other words: We are only able to understand today in terms of, and because of, our past experiences. Yet, we also know that 'Today' is unlike 'Yesterday'. We inherit Yesterday's patterns and need them to interpret what our senses are experiencing in the present. These patterns are simultaneously essential and yet out of date.

How do we perceive? We store a ‘model’ or memory of objects. The process of perceiving involves ‘matching’ what our senses are experiencing to one of our ‘models.’ Perception is an active pattern-matching process. We recognize the world because of our historical store of information. We create our own unique world, our own interpretation of reality.

Patterns to Organize Sensations Figure-Ground We tend to organize sensations into figures and backgrounds. Similarity We tend to group similar items. Do you see alternating rows of O’s and X’s or columns of alternating O’s and X’s? O O O O O X X X X X Proximity We tend to group elements that are close together. How many groupings do you see at the left? O O O O Closure We tend to fill in the gaps in incomplete stimuli. Do you see a rectangle or four lines? Continuation We tend to organize stimuli into continuous lines or patterns. Do you see two intersecting lines or four lines? Simplicity We tend to reduce stimuli to their simplest shapes or patterns. Do you see an overlapping rectangle and triangle or a nonstandard shaped polygon? 6

Therefore: Discovering a new perception adds to the database of patterns which already exists in our minds. Once existing experience has been proved inadequate to correctly interpret an image, the brain supplements its store of knowledge with the new experience. Once new experience becomes old experience, it is often difficult to imagine the state of mind prior to gaining this new insight.

Factors that Influence Perception Factors in the perceiver *Attitudes *Motives *Interests *Experience *Expectations Factors in the target *Novelty *Motion *Sounds *Size *Background *Proximity Factors in the situation *Time *Work setting *Social setting Perceptions

What is the perception process? A process by which individuals: Organize & interpret their sensory impressions, in order to give meaning to their environment. What one perceive may be substantially different from reality.

Organizational Applications of Perception Employment Interviews Self-fulfilling prophecies of performance Performance evaluations Employee effort Employee loyalty

Managers Should Take Five Steps to Increase Perceptual Accuracy Eliminate or Reduce Projections Distinguish among Aspects of Person’s Behavior STEP 3 Determine if Facts or Assumptions STEP 2 STEP 1 Check Conclusions Gather information about behavior & attitudes 8

Attribution Judging what people are like and why they do what they do. What is someone really like? What makes a person behave they way s/he does?

One Makes Attributions in Three Major Steps: The Behavior Occurs; the Person Determines if it Was Intentional; if so, the Person Determines its Causes Observe behavior What Caused the behavior? Was the behavior intentional? BEHAVIOR OCCURS Intentional Unintentional Situational Cause Luck! Chance! Personal Cause 9

Correspondent Inferences Using acts to judge dispositions. We make judgments about what people are like based on what we are able to observe of their behavior. Many causes of behavior. People can conceal some of their traits.

Causal Attribution of Responsibility Answering the question of WHY? Kelley’s Theory of Causal Attribution Consensus Extent to which other people behave the same. Consistency Extent to which behavior is same at other times. Distinctiveness Extent to which behavior is the same in other contexts.

Internal and External Causes of Behavior Employee Applies for Promotion Employees Denied Promotion Employee Receives Promotion Coworker Attributes Success to Situational Characteristics; Boss’s Supervision Employee Attributes Failure to Situational Characteristics; Interviewer’s Attitude Coworker Attributes Failure to Personal Characteristics; Employee’s Personality Employee Attributes Success to Personal Characteristics; Employee’s Effort 11

Making Judgments = Errors Fundamental Attribution Error Actor-Observer Effect Self-Serving Attribution False Consensus Stereotypes Overcoming Bias in Social Perception External Causes Know your Stereotypes Objective Factors Rash Judgments

The Johari Window

How Little We Remember

Biographical Characteristics Age Gender Marital Status Birth Order Number of Dependents Personality Determinants Heredity Environment Situation

What is Personality? The sum total of ways in which an individual reacts and interacts with others, described in terms of measurable personality traits that a person exhibits. Job fit -- job satisfaction!

Personality Attributes Locus of Control Achievement Orientation Authoritarianism Self-esteem Risk Taking Self-Monitoring Self Efficacy

“Big Five” Dimensions Conscientiousness Extraversion-introversion Agreeableness Emotional Stability Openness to Experience Conscientiousness –low – irresponsible, disorganized, lacking self-discipline & unscrupulous high – careful, through, responsible, organized, self-discipline & scrupulous Extraversion-introversion – sociable, talkative, assertive & active or retiring, sober, reserved & cautious Agreeableness – low – irritable, ruthless, suspicious, uncooperative & inflexible high – good-natured, gentle, cooperative, forgiving & hopeful Emotional Stability – low – anxious, depressed, angry, emotional, insecure & excitable high – calm, enthusiastic, poised & secure Openness to Experience – low – down-to-earth, insensitive, narrow, crude, and simple high – imaginative, sensitive, intellectual & polished

Uniqueness Affectivity – moods Type A – Type B Self-Efficacy High – sense of well-being Type A – Type B A seek more challenge -- overloaded Self-Efficacy Belief in one’s own ability to perform Self-Esteem Positive or Negative views about self Achievement Motivation Task Orientation

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Introvert-Extrovert where you derive your energy Sensing-Intuitive where you obtain your information Thinking-Feeling analysis & logic versus pleasing people Judging-Perceiving how you make a decision

Kiersey Temperament Sorter 1.In most situations are you more deliberate than spontaneous spontaneous than deliberate 2.Is it worse to be a softy hard-nosed 3.Is it better to be just merciful

Each Manager Has a Particular Personality Type That Focuses Attention and Presents Strengths and Weaknesses in Dealing With Situations Psychological Types Focus and Preferences Weaknesses (if Overextended) Strengths Focuses on people and things; sociable; outgoing Focuses on thoughts and concepts; reflective; inwardly directed Good at social interaction; en- thusiastic and confident; insti- gates action; open and straightforward Good at personal interaction; stays calm and focused; can con- centrate intensely; develops ideas; uses discretion in talking Intellectual super- ficiality; intrusive; lack of respect for others’ privacy; easily distracted May lose touch with outer world; keeps people at a distance; easily preoccupied Extroversion Introversion 6

Each Manager Has a Particular Personality Type That Focuses His or Her Attention and Presents Strengths and Weaknesses in Dealing With Situations as They Arise (Cont.) Psychological Types Focus and Preferences Weaknesses (if Overextended) Strengths Sensing Intuitive Thinking Facts; data; details; concrete; reality based; present oriented Possibilities; hunches; speculations; theor- etical ; future oriented Analysis; objective; logic; impersonal; justice; systematic inquiry Pragmatic; precise; stable; results orient- ed; sensible; system- atic Imaginative; concep- tulizes easily; creative; intellectually tenacious; idealistic Rational; analytical; assertive; logical; care- fully weighs alternatives; firm but fair; explains thoroughly Lacks long-range outlook; may reject innovative ideas Unrealistic; out of touch; bored by routine; scattered Undervalues feel- ings; overly anal- ytical; insensitive; critical; judgmental 7

Each Manager Has a Particular Personality Type That Focuses His or Her Attention and Presents Strengths and Weaknesses in Dealing With Situations as They Arise (Cont.) Psychological Types Focus and Preferences Weaknesses (if Overextended) Strengths Feeling Judging Perceiving Sympathy; subjective; humane; personal; compassion; trust; consideration Organized; planned; settled;control one’s life; set goals; struc- tured; routine Pending; flexible; curious; spontaneity; tentative; let life happen; undaunted by surprise; open to change Persuasive; empathic; warm; sensitive; demon- strative and expressive; loyal Plan, organize, and control well; persistent; decisive; conscientious; reliable Open minded; adaptable; spontaneous; under- standing; tolerant; inquisitive Overly sensitive; moody; can become emotionally over- burdened Close minded; in- flexible; can jump to conclusions too quickly; intolerant; judgmental Indecisive; procrast- inates; unfocused; disorganized; im- pulsive; may collect data too long before deciding 8

Frequently Used Shortcuts in Judging Others Selective Perception Projection Stereotyping Halo Effect

Emotional Intelligence Definition: Self-control, zeal, persistence, and the ability to motivate oneself. The 5 Domains of Emotional Intelligence: Knowing your own emotions Managing your emotions Motivating yourself Empathy Handling Relationships

Knowing Your Emotions The first step, the fundamental competence on which all others are built Self-Awareness: being aware of both our mood and our thoughts about that mood—the building block to the next step. . . Shaking off a bad mood Ways of Attending to Emotions: Self-aware Engulfed Accepting (laissez-faire) Getting to understand your ‘Gut Feelings’ The Emotional Hijacking

Managing Emotions Finding a Balance Venting Emotions Anger (Don’t Suppress it but Don’t Act) Reframe Anger (Paradigm Shifts) 1. Challenge the Triggering Thoughts 2. Understanding Worry

Motivating Yourself “Mundanity of Excellence” Anxiety, Anger & Depression Inhibit Learning Impulse Control & Delayed Gratification (the Marshmallow Experiment) Memory is state-specific Self-Efficacy can be learned, like optimism and hope Flow Self-Forgetfulness Zone between Boredom & Anxiety

Empathy Requires Enough Calm and Receptivity so Subtle Signs of Others can be Received Benefits of Reading Non-verbal Cues: Better Adjusted More Popular More Outgoing More Sensitive

Handling Relationships Key Social Competence: Expressing Own Feelings Display Rules: Minimizing Exaggerating Substituting Emotional Judo

Values Content & Intensity Attributes Lay the foundation for the understanding of attitudes and motivation. Influence our perceptions. Influence attitudes and behavior. Sources of Value Systems develop over time. Achievement, peace, cooperation, equity etc.

What are Attitudes? Evaluative statements or judgements concerning objects, people, or events. Either favorable or unfavorable. Attitudes Reflect a Person’s Values. Attitudes & Consistency for Individuals: Among their attitudes Between their attitudes and behavior Align attitudes and behavior by changing one or the other.

Three Components of Attitudes Evaluative – how we feel Cognitive – personal knowledge Behavioral – predisposition to act in a certain way.

Job Satisfaction Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory Hygiene Factors dis-satisfiers lower level needs working conditions Motivators higher level needs satisfiers

Motivators  Worker Satisfaction Motivators  Worker Satisfaction. Hygiene Factors  Worker Dissatisfaction. HYGIENE FACTORS MOTIVATORS Job Dissatisfaction No Job Dissatisfaction No Job Satisfaction Job Satisfaction Pay Status Security Working Conditions Fringe Benefits Policies and Administrative Practices Interpersonal Relations Meaningful Work Challenging Work Recognition for Accomplishments Feeling of Achievement Increased Responsibility Opportunities for Growth and Advancement The Job Itself Fig. 4-3

Consequences of Job Dissatisfaction Turnover Absenteeism Job performance

Ability Directly influences level of performance and satisfaction. Need an effective selection process. Need effective promotion and transfer decisions. Need to fine-tune jobs to fit individuals.

*Verbal Comprehension Types of Ability Intellectual Ability *Number *Verbal Comprehension *Perceptual Speed *Inductive Reasoning Physical Ability * Strength *Flexibility *Conditioning *Balance *Stamina