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In R ev 11 a THEORIES IN MOTIVATION Innate biological instincts guide behavior. Behavior is guided by biological needs and learned ways of reducing drives arising from those needs. People seek to maintain an optimal level of physiological arousal, which differs from person to person. Maximum performance occurs at optimal arousal levels. Behavior is guided by the lure of rewards and the threat of punishment. Cognitive factors influence expectations of the value of various rewards and the likelihood of attaining them. Theory Instinct Drive reduction Arousal Incentive Main Points

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InRev11b InRev11a MAJOR FACTORS CONTROLLING HUNGER AND EATING Levels of glucose and insulin in the blood provide signals that stimulate eating; neurotransmitters that affect neurons in different regions of the hypothalamus also stimulate food intake and influence hungers for specific kinds of foods, such as fats and carbohydrates. Stomach contractions are associated with subjective feelings of hunger, but they do not play a substantial role in the stimulation of eating. Sights and smells of particular foods elicit eating because of prior associations; family customs and social occasions often include norms for eating in particular ways; stress is often associated with eating more. Stimulate Eating Biological factors Nonbiological factors Inhibit Eating Hormones released into the bloodstream produce signals that inhibit eating; hormones such as leptin, CCK, and insulin act as neurotransmitters or neuromodulators and affect neurons in the hypothalamus and inhibit eating. The ventromedial nucleus of the hypothalamus may be a “satiety center” that monitors these hormones. Values in contemporary U.S. society encourage thinness, and thus can inhibit eating.

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11_07 Hypothalamus Pituitary Feedback to brain Secretes estrogen and progestins (estradiol and progesterone) Secretes androgens (testosterone) Ovary Testis

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11_10 Frontal cortex Basal ganglia Thalamus Hypothalamus Pituitary Cingulate cortex Hippocampus Amygdala Sensory input Locus coeruleus Activation of autonomic nervous system Spinal cord

11_13 PARASYMPATHETIC FUNCTIONS Constricts pupil Stimulates salivation Slows respiration Slows heartbeat Stimulates gall bladder Stimulates digestion Contracts bladder Stimulates genitals SYMPATHETIC FUNCTIONS Dilates pupil Inhibits salivation Increases respiration Accelerates heartbeat Inhibits digestion Stimulates glucose release Relaxes bladder Inhibits genitals Secretes adrenaline and noradrenaline Sympathetic ganglion Parasympathetic ganglion Acetylcholine released Target organ Norepinephrine released CNS

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InRev11c InRev11b InRev11a THEORIES OF EMOTION The CNS generates specific physical responses; observation of the physical responses constitutes emotion. The CNS generates nonspecific physical responses; interpretation of the physical responses in light of the situation constitutes emotions. Parts of the CNS directly generate emotions; peripheral physiological responses are not necessary. Theory James Schachter’s modification of James’s theory Cannon Evidence for Theory Different emotions are associated with different physical responses. Excitation generated by physical activity can transfer to increase emotional intensity. People with spinal cord damage experience a full range of emotions without feedback from peripheral responses. Source of Emotions

SOCIAL INFLUENCE What role does arousal play in aggression? (p. 650) HEALTH, STRESS, AND COPING Can motivational conflicts cause stress? (p. 384) BIOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF PSYCHOLOGY How does your brain know when you are hungry? (p. 364) LINKAGES to Motivation and Emotion