Observation

One of the most common types of qualitative research is observation of people in their natural settings  Yogi Berra: “You can see a lot by just looking.”

Goal “to develop context-specific statements (as opposed to universal generalizations) about the multiple, constructed realities of all the key participants (including the researcher) involved in the process being investigated”

You must make a number of important choices Where?  What is the location you will study? When?  The same location will provide very different results at different times of day, of the week or of the year. What will you look for?  While being open-minded, you can’t look at everything. What data will you generate? How will you record and analyze it? How will you present yourself?  Will you reveal that you are a researcher or not? How much disclosure of your goals will you give?

The position you will take Will you be a ‘fly on the wall’ or a ‘participant’? As a pure observer, you are less likely to either actively change behavior or to go native. On the other hand, you will not understand the phenomenon in the same way and you may be a distracting influence in that people may not trust you. What about filming the action?  Camera trained on city corner continuously filming for analysis of “street corner society”

A significant ethical concern: If you do not reveal yourself as a researcher to the members of the group, they will not have given informed consent (by definition). They may even tell you things that they never would had they known you were a researcher.  To what extent is subterfuge necessary to gain the knowledge you seek?  To what extent is it justified by the knowledge gained?  What if your research is subpoenaed?

Planning your observation Observation demands careful planning  There are a tremendous number of things you could focus on in even the most simple setting/event  You must at least have some basic ideas of where to start looking for important aspects of the behavior you are studying.

Before entering the field Learn appropriate dress and behavior Find informants to make introductions  Most groups have certain people who act as gatekeepers Get formal permission as necessary  You should be ready with a rationale for participation and some sense of potential benefits to participants

Systematic observation You may wish to develop a standardized form for data collection that will help keep you on track during the observation period  Increased reliability of observational data Develop some regularized procedures to see that you don’t lose data  You will often be tired and ready for sleep by the time you return from the research site—don’t drop off and then simply lose the day’s research work

Sampling people and events critical case: unusually rich in information pertaining to research question typical case: you pick a group or activity you judge to be typical of the population deviant case: provides a useful contrast to the typical case Though increasing the number of cases will likely make the study more representative you are unlikely ever to generate a truly generalizable sample

Developing and maintaining relationships Interaction early in the research is key to later success  Informal at first to build trust and rapport  Be self-revealing up to a point Ask sensitive questions only after strong rapport is established

Key informants: knowledgeable insiders who know the group’s culture and are willing to share access and insights Be careful not to ‘go native’  Don’t lose your critical distance

Managing the personal dimension Personal relationships invariably develop with informants, but you must maintain ethical standards and distance  Increased contact brings sympathy, which hampers criticism  A researcher’s social attributes and those of the subjects shape personal relationships

Guidelines proposed by Whyte (1955) Take time to consider how you want to relate to potential subjects as people Speculate about what personal problems might arise and how you will respond to them Keep in touch with other researchers and personal friends outside the research setting Maintain standards of conduct that make you comfortable as a person and that respect the integrity of your subjects

Other things to keep in mind Be unobtrusive and unassuming  Don’t be too aggressive in questioning others Don’t fake a social similarity  You are likely to be seen as a phony— because you would be  And it’s unethical Be prepared for intergroup conflict if multiple groups are involved  You may encounter jealousies, conflict, etc.

Advantages of observation Can be relatively unobtrusive  Better than other methods in allowing the researcher to see people act in a natural manner in their natural environment A wealth of detail can be generated

Advantages of observation Observation can often be combined with other research methods  E.g., a naturalistic experiment may be carried out by manipulating the environment and observing the results Set out toys in a waiting room and observe kids

Disadvantages of observation Observation can only be used for certain types of study  You cannot generalize your results Limited sample Simply observing people tells us about their behavior but not their attitudes, interests and opinions  To deal with this problem, you can combine observation with interviews, surveys, etc.

Disadvantages of observation Observation studies are often time- intensive  Some researchers spend years on a single study Observer bias is difficult to avoid Results from observation are open to widely divergent interpretations

Observation is especially useful for studying: Children’s behavior Socially criticized behavior ‘Taken for granted’ behaviors  behaviors occurring without conscious thought Complex and multi-faceted situations The role of environment and context in shaping behavior