The Relation of theory to research 1/15 The example of the Freedom battery from the General Social Survey

Theory Research The central idea of the course is that there is a dialectical or reciprocal relation between theory and research: The central idea of the course is that there is a dialectical or reciprocal relation between theory and research: Theory Research Theory Research Valid and useful theory must have empirical research implicationsValid and useful theory must have empirical research implications Research Theory Research Theory Valid and useful empirical research must be motivated by theory and have theoretical implications.Valid and useful empirical research must be motivated by theory and have theoretical implications.

Theory Research Theoretical considerations play the dominant role in the formulation and interpretation of any data. Theoretical considerations play the dominant role in the formulation and interpretation of any data. The facts never speak for themselves. The facts never speak for themselves. Data without theory are dumb. Data without theory are dumb. The role of theory includes: conceptualization of measures, the causal order and other forces that may be involved, interpretation of the finding, and generalization to other cases. The role of theory includes: conceptualization of measures, the causal order and other forces that may be involved, interpretation of the finding, and generalization to other cases.

What about serendipity? Sometimes important discoveries have been made by theorists who did not expect that particular finding. Sometimes important discoveries have been made by theorists who did not expect that particular finding. E.g. Penicillin from moldy bread. E.g. Penicillin from moldy bread. And that is one of the reasons that empirical research is always indispensible. And that is one of the reasons that empirical research is always indispensible. But there were also many theoretical preconditions of the discovery of Penicillin But there were also many theoretical preconditions of the discovery of Penicillin

Research Theory Empirical research is basic to any science. Empirical research is basic to any science. “Theories” that do not have a rich and varied set of researchable implications are merely ways of talking about reality; they do not involve assertions about reality. “Theories” that do not have a rich and varied set of researchable implications are merely ways of talking about reality; they do not involve assertions about reality. Most sociologists correctly regard them as meaningless and empty. Most sociologists correctly regard them as meaningless and empty. Theories without data are blind. Theories without data are blind. The role of data includes: modification and clarification of theories as well as decisions between competing theories. The role of data includes: modification and clarification of theories as well as decisions between competing theories.

An example: Sources and nature of the value of freedom O. Patterson argues that freedom is a core value of the west, particularly the United States. O. Patterson argues that freedom is a core value of the west, particularly the United States. Thus the view that some set of arrangements or actions involves or promotes freedom has consequences Thus the view that some set of arrangements or actions involves or promotes freedom has consequences But Freedom is a complex value. But Freedom is a complex value. Different people have different views and concepts that need investigation. Different people have different views and concepts that need investigation.

Patterson’s concept of the three notes in the “chord” of freedom: 1. Freedom-from: The rights of individuals and groups not to have others or the government constrain them from doing what they wish. 2. Freedom-to: Providing the actual wherewithall for individuals or groups to actually do what they wish 3. Freedom-with: The ability to influence and initiate collective action The three notes are in tension with each other. The three notes are in tension with each other.

The basic paradox or dialectic of freedom, according to Patterson: Freedom comes from slavery Freedom comes from slavery The main societies that have engendered the value have been slave societies.The main societies that have engendered the value have been slave societies. The main groups that have promoted the value have been slaves (or threatened with slavery)The main groups that have promoted the value have been slaves (or threatened with slavery) But slavery is pervasive But slavery is pervasive And the value of freedom is unusual And the value of freedom is unusual

Why did it not become a core value outside of the modern West? 1. Slaves aspired for freedom, but They had no power. They had no power. Freedom for one person did not imply freedom for another. Freedom for one person did not imply freedom for another. Indeed the conditions of an inclusive “social horizon” are rare. Indeed the conditions of an inclusive “social horizon” are rare. 2. Freedom was seen as a good thing but Particularistic social ties were indispensable Particularistic social ties were indispensable Freedom was “Jumping from a slave ship into shark infested water.” Freedom was “Jumping from a slave ship into shark infested water.”

Christianity and Freedom Patterson argues that Christianity played a fundamental role in institutionalizing freedom as a value. Patterson argues that Christianity played a fundamental role in institutionalizing freedom as a value. Paul made redemption from spiritual slavery the fundamental promise.Paul made redemption from spiritual slavery the fundamental promise. Augustine developed that idea.Augustine developed that idea. But this involved a kind of freedom that coexisted happily with slavery for thousands of years.But this involved a kind of freedom that coexisted happily with slavery for thousands of years.

Empirical analysis of the value The Patterson battery on the last General Social Survey will familiarize us with: The Patterson battery on the last General Social Survey will familiarize us with: 1.The GSS 2.Cross tabulation 3.Samples and populations. 4.Theoretical interpretation.

Consider the following variables 1. Gender (male) 2. Race (white) 3. How Free (Believes that Americans today have “complete” or “a great deal” 4. Free Now (Believes that Americans today have more freedom than in past 5. Wlth Pov (Agrees or strongly agrees that “In a free society, it is alright if a few people accumulate a lot of wealth and property while many others live in poverty.”)

Formulate hypotheses on: 1. Gender How Free Gender Free Now Gender Wlth Pov Race How Free Race Free Now Race Wlth Pov Wlth Pov How Free