Fiorina, Peterson, Johnson, and Mayer New American Democracy, Sixth Edition Chapter 7 Interest-Group Participation in American Democracy © 2009, Pearson Education

Growth and Development Several features of the American political system have encouraged the formation of groups –Federalism and separation of powers lots of points of access or pressure points Interest group formation has occurred in waves –Post-Civil War –Progressive Era –Post 1960s (largest wave) –Recent generation of interest groups responded to changes in politics and technology

© 2009, Pearson Education The Nature and Variety of Interest Groups Great variety of form –Formal to informal One study found that of 83 public interest groups examined, 30 had no membership –Associations membership groups – individuals make voluntary contributions trade associations – members pay regular dues Estimation that almost 80% of interest groups in existence in the 1980s represented professional or occupational constituencies (both profit-seeking and nonprofit) The other 20 percent reflect citizens groups. (social movements)

© 2009, Pearson Education Forming and Maintaining Interest Groups Millions do not join groups –In many cases, an interest group may include only 1 percent or less of their potential membership Common interest may be a necessary condition for membership, but it is not sufficient — resources needed Not all interests form groups

© 2009, Pearson Education Forming and Maintaining Interest Groups If some kinds of interests are not represented, politics may be biased Moreover, when interest groups are formed, they often must work hard to maintain themselves –providing incentives to members that justify an investment in the member’s resources

© 2009, Pearson Education Forming and Maintaining Interest Groups Types of incentives –Solidarity: joining for social reasons –Material: joining for economic reasons –Purposive: joining to advance a group’s social and political goals

© 2009, Pearson Education The Free-Rider Problem The free-rider problem arises when people can enjoy the benefits of group activity without bearing any of the costs Individuals perceive that attainment of the group goal has little relationship to their personal contribution –People realize their personal impact is so small as to be unnoticeable –These two elements encourage individuals to free-ride contribution unnoticeable receive the benefit regardless

© 2009, Pearson Education The Free-Rider Problem Problem effects larger groups to a greater degree –Small groups, social pressure create an incentive to contribute The free-rider problem is more serious the greater abstractness of the benefit the group seeks to achieve –Feeding the poor in your neighborhood versus reducing world hunger

© 2009, Pearson Education The Free-Rider Problem Public goods –Goods that you can enjoy without contributing, by free-riding on the efforts of those who do Private goods –Goods that you must purchase to enjoy, and your consumption of which means that others cannot consume them Free-rider problem implies that democratic politics will favor narrow “special’ interests at the expense of the broader “public” interest

© 2009, Pearson Education Overcoming the Free-Rider Problem Coercion Social pressure or force to make people join in a collective effort –Milder forms: Practicing law usually requires membership in the state bar association –Some trades require a state license or official certification. Those who wish to participate must go through formal processes and belong to particular organizations Declining as means of overcoming free-riding

© 2009, Pearson Education Overcoming the Free-Rider Problem Social Movements –Broad-based demand for government action on some problem or issue –Examples: abolitionist movement, Populist and labor movements, women’s suffrage movement and the civil rights movement, equal rights movement, religious right movement, and more Increasing Perceived Impact –Groups may reformulate their appeals in order to suggest that even small contributions have a concrete impact –Example: UNICEF

© 2009, Pearson Education Overcoming the Free-Rider Problem Selective Benefits –Side benefits of belonging to an organization that is limited to contributing members of the organization –Example: AARP offers access to mail order pharmacy services, low cost auto, health and life insurance, discounts on hotels, airfares, and car rentals, etc. Patrons –Rich individuals with deep commitments to the group goal may make a difference with large contributions Political Entrepreneurs –people willing to assume the costs of forming and maintaining an organization even when others may free-ride on them

© 2009, Pearson Education How Interest Groups Influence Government There are many ways that interest groups can influence government Lobbying Grassroots lobbying Electioneering and political action committees Persuading the public - Direct mail Direct action Litigation

© 2009, Pearson Education Lobbying Lobbying: interest group activities intended to influence directly the decisions that public officials make –May draft bills, testify before congressional committees, meet with elected officials and present their cases, provide information –Often on specific rather than general matters Lobbyist: someone who engages in lobbying –Full-time and part-time –“Hired gun” with contacts and expertise for a price –Others affiliated with particular party –Staff lobbyist –Leaders of organizations do double-duty as lobbyists.

© 2009, Pearson Education Grassroots Lobbying Influence elected officials indirectly by mobilizing their constituents New innovation: grass-tops lobbying –An interest group makes an ad featuring a prominent local personality (someone who is an important supporter of a member of Congress) then plays the ad in the member’s district –The assumption is that key supporters of the congressional member are on the interest group’s side. Key supporters may be more influential than regular voters

© 2009, Pearson Education Electioneering and PACs A way to affect the views of public officials generally is by influencing who gets elected Political Action Committees –Specialized organizations for raising and contributing campaign funds –Varied in nature –Have grown immensely in number in 1980s –Give instrumentally: donating to the members of key committees regardless of party –Most PAC contributions small and intended to gain access to public officials –Often politicians extort PACS –Relationship goes both ways

© 2009, Pearson Education

Persuading the Public Overlaps a bit with grassroots lobbying Focus primarily on issue advocacy –Advertising campaigns that attempt to influence public opinion on an issue –Communicate with citizens even when no specific legislation or regulation is at issue Direct mail is another tool interest groups use –Computer-generated letters, faxes, and other communications to people who might be sympathetic to an appeal for money or support Generating media coverage for the group and its agenda

© 2009, Pearson Education Other Activities Direct Action: involves everything from peaceful sit-ins and demonstrations to riots and even rebellion Litigation: involves carrying out a legal strategy to utilize court decisions to support the interests group’s goals –Example: Civil Rights Movement carefully selected cases to litigate that eventually led to landmark decisions that helped end segregation Filing amicus curiae briefs is another strategy that involves participation in the legal system. - Intended to influence litigation outcome

© 2009, Pearson Education Why Groups Use Particular Tactics Different groups use different strategies Group characteristics –What kind of group it is, what kind of resources, and how much of the resource it has all determine strategic choices Situational characteristics –What is available to the group? Civil rights organizations did not have access to traditional tools like lobbying. They had to use courts

© 2009, Pearson Education How Influential Are Interest Groups? Subgovernments –Alliance of a congressional committee, the executive agency, and interest groups Issue Networks –A loose constellation of larger numbers of committees, agencies, interest groups, and policy experts active in a particular policy area

© 2009, Pearson Education How Influential Are Interest Groups? Consensus today – Issue networks are more representative of the policy environment than iron triangles are Even term “network” may exaggerate the organization in interest group activity Likely that interest group influence is conditional Ranges from weak to strong –Depends on the conditions under which groups try to influence politics

© 2009, Pearson Education Interest Groups and Democratic Politics Why do contemporary Americans hold interest groups in such low regard? After all, the Constitution encourages their existence Pluralism sees their positive contributions –School of thought holding that politics is the clash of groups that represent all important interests in society and that check and balance each other

© 2009, Pearson Education Interest Groups and Democratic Politics But pluralism has been criticized –No representation of interest group universe –Interest of whole nation is not equal to the sum of the interests of the parts –Groups distort political discussions; reinforce extremism and undercut moderation General interests of a moderate population can get lost amid the bitter fighting of intense and extreme special interests

© 2009, Pearson Education Interest Groups and Democratic Politics Madison One of the first pluralists Did not foresee several modern developments, ─Tremendous expansion of society; great range of interests ─Prevalence of logrolling Solution to controlling group demands? political parties

© 2009, Pearson Education