Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Human Development Studying  Change  Constancy throughout the lifespan Studying  Change  Constancy throughout the lifespan

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Field of Human Development  Scientific  Applied  Interdisciplinary  Scientific  Applied  Interdisciplinary

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Theory An orderly, integrated set of statements that  Describes  Explains  Predicts Behavior An orderly, integrated set of statements that  Describes  Explains  Predicts Behavior

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Basic Issues in Development 1.Continuous or discontinuous? 2.One course of development or many? 3.Nature or nurture? 1.Continuous or discontinuous? 2.One course of development or many? 3.Nature or nurture?

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Basic Issues: Continuous or Discontinuous

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Contexts of Development  Unique combinations of:  Genetics  Environment  Unique combinations of:  Genetics  Environment  Can result in different paths of development

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Basic Issues: Nature and Nurture Nature  Inborn, biological givens  Based on genetic inheritance Nature  Inborn, biological givens  Based on genetic inheritance Nurture  Physical and social world  Influence biological and psychological development

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Stability and Plasticity Stability  Individuals high or low in a characteristic remain so at later ages  Early experience may have lifelong impact Stability  Individuals high or low in a characteristic remain so at later ages  Early experience may have lifelong impact Plasticity  Change is possible, based on experiences

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Development as a Dynamic System  Perpetually ongoing process  Conception to Death  Influences on development  Biological  Psychological  Social  Perpetually ongoing process  Conception to Death  Influences on development  Biological  Psychological  Social

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Lifespan Perspective Development as  Lifelong  Multidimensional and multidirectional  Highly plastic  Influenced by multiple forces Development as  Lifelong  Multidimensional and multidirectional  Highly plastic  Influenced by multiple forces

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Periods of Development PrenatalConception to birth Infancy and Toddlerhood Birth to 2 years Early Childhood2 to 6 years Middle Childhood6 to 11 years Adolescence11 to 18 years Early Adulthood18 to 40 years Middle Adulthood40 to 65 years Late Adulthood65 years to death

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Influences on Development  Age-Graded  History-Graded  Nonnormative  Age-Graded  History-Graded  Nonnormative

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Resilience  The ability to adapt effectively in the face of threats to development  Factors in resilience  Personal characteristics  Warm parental relationship  Social support outside family  Community resources and opportunities  Factors in resilience  Personal characteristics  Warm parental relationship  Social support outside family  Community resources and opportunities

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Philosophies of Childhood  Medieval: Contradictory beliefs about children’s basic nature  Puritan: Children as inherently evil and stubborn  punitive approach to child-rearing  Locke: Tabula rasa  children as blank slates shaped by experience  Rousseau: Noble savages  children as naturally healthy and moral  Medieval: Contradictory beliefs about children’s basic nature  Puritan: Children as inherently evil and stubborn  punitive approach to child-rearing  Locke: Tabula rasa  children as blank slates shaped by experience  Rousseau: Noble savages  children as naturally healthy and moral

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Philosophies of Adulthood and Aging  Tetens  Origin and extent of individual differences  Change during adulthood - compensation for declines  Impact of historical era on life course  Tetens  Origin and extent of individual differences  Change during adulthood - compensation for declines  Impact of historical era on life course  Carus Identified four periods of life  Childhood  Youth  Adulthood  Senescence  Carus Identified four periods of life  Childhood  Youth  Adulthood  Senescence

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Key Principles of Darwin’s Theory of Evolution Natural Selection  Species have characteristics that are adapted—or fit— to their environments. Natural Selection  Species have characteristics that are adapted—or fit— to their environments. Survival of the Fittest  Individuals best adapted to their environments survive to reproduce.  Their genes are passed to later generations.

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Early Scientific Study of Development Normative Approach Hall, Gesell Measured large numbers of people Age-related averages Mental Testing Movement Binet & Simon Intelligence tests

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Freud’s Three Parts of the Personality Id Largest portion of the mind Unconscious, present at birth Source of biological needs & desires Ego Conscious, rational part of mind Emerges in early infancy Redirects id impulses acceptably Superego The conscience Develops from ages 3 to 6 from interactions with caregivers

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Freud’s Psychosexual Stages  Oral  Anal  Phallic  Latency  Genital  Oral  Anal  Phallic  Latency  Genital

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages Basic trust v. mistrustBirth to 1 year Autonomy v. shame and doubt1–3 years Initiative v. guilt3–6 years Industry v. inferiority6–11 years Identity v. role confusionAdolescence Intimacy v. isolationEarly adulthood Generativity v. stagnationMiddle adulthood Ego integrity v. despairLate adulthood

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Behaviorism & Social Learning Classical Conditioning Stimulus – Response Operant Conditioning Reinforcers and Punishments Social LearningModeling

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Piaget’s Stages  Sensorimotor  Preoperational  Concrete Operational  Formal Operational  Sensorimotor  Preoperational  Concrete Operational  Formal Operational

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Information-Processing Flowchart

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience  Study of relationships between  Changes in the brain  Development of cognition, behavior  Brings together researchers from  Psychology  Biology  Neuroscience  Medicine  Study of relationships between  Changes in the brain  Development of cognition, behavior  Brings together researchers from  Psychology  Biology  Neuroscience  Medicine

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Ethology  Study of adaptive value of behavior and its evolutionary history  Critical Period  Sensitive Period  Study of adaptive value of behavior and its evolutionary history  Critical Period  Sensitive Period

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Critical Period  Individual is  Biologically prepared to acquire adaptive behaviors during limited time span  Needs support of an appropriately stimulating environment  Individual is  Biologically prepared to acquire adaptive behaviors during limited time span  Needs support of an appropriately stimulating environment

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Sensitive Period  Later development is hard to induce  Boundaries less defined than a critical period  An optimal time for certain capacities to emerge  Individual is especially responsive to environment  An optimal time for certain capacities to emerge  Individual is especially responsive to environment

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Evolutionary Developmental Psychology  Seeks to understand adaptive value of human competencies  Studies cognitive, emotional and social competencies and change with age  Expands upon ethology  Seeks to understand adaptive value of human competencies  Studies cognitive, emotional and social competencies and change with age  Expands upon ethology

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory  Social interaction necessary  Cooperative dialogues with more knowledgeable members of society  Social interaction necessary  Cooperative dialogues with more knowledgeable members of society  Transmission of culture to a new generation  Values, beliefs, customs, skills  Transmission of culture to a new generation  Values, beliefs, customs, skills

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Ecological Systems Theory

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Choosing a Research Strategy Research Methods  Basic approach to gathering information  Systematic observations  Self-reports  Clinical or case studies  Ethnographies Research Methods  Basic approach to gathering information  Systematic observations  Self-reports  Clinical or case studies  Ethnographies Research Design  Overall plan for the study  Permits the best test of the research question

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Systematic Observation Naturalistic Observation  In the “field” or natural environment where behavior happens Naturalistic Observation  In the “field” or natural environment where behavior happens Structured Observations  Laboratory situation set up to evoke behavior of interest  All participants have equal chance to display behavior

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Interviews Clinical Interview  Flexible, conversational style  Probes for participant’s point of view Clinical Interview  Flexible, conversational style  Probes for participant’s point of view Structured Interview  Each participant is asked same questions in same way  May use questionnaires, get answers from groups

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Clinical/Case Study Method  Brings together a wide range of information on one person  Interviews  Observations  Test scores  Brings together a wide range of information on one person  Interviews  Observations  Test scores

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Ethnography  Descriptive, qualitative technique  Goal is to understand a culture or social group  Participant Observation  Researcher lives in community for months or years  Participant Observation  Researcher lives in community for months or years

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 General Research Designs Correlational  Reveals relationships between variables  Does NOT reveal cause-and-effect Correlational  Reveals relationships between variables  Does NOT reveal cause-and-effect Experimental  Allows cause-and- effect statements  Lab experiments may not apply in the real world.

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Correlation Coefficients Magnitude  Size of the number between 0 and 1  Closer to 1 (positive or negative) is a stronger relationship Magnitude  Size of the number between 0 and 1  Closer to 1 (positive or negative) is a stronger relationship Direction  Indicated by + or - sign  Positive (+): as one variable increases, so does the other  Negative (-): as one variable increase, the other decreases

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Correlations

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Examples of Correlation Coefficients

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Independent and Dependent Variables Independent  Experimenter changes, or manipulates  Expected to cause changes in another variable. Independent  Experimenter changes, or manipulates  Expected to cause changes in another variable. Dependent  Experimenter measures, but does not manipulate  Expected to be influenced by the independent variable

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Random Assignment  Researchers use unbiased procedure to assign participants to treatment conditions  Increases chances that characteristics will be equally distributed across conditions  Researchers use unbiased procedure to assign participants to treatment conditions  Increases chances that characteristics will be equally distributed across conditions

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Modified Experiments Field Experiment  Capitalize on opportunities for random assignment in natural settings Field Experiment  Capitalize on opportunities for random assignment in natural settings Natural or Quasi- Experiment  Compare differences in treatment that already exist  Match groups as much as possible

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Developmental Research Designs Longitudinal Same group studied at different times Cross- Sectional Differing groups studied at the same time Sequential Several similar cross-sectional or longitudinal studies at varying times

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Problems in Conducting Longitudinal Research  Participants drop out, move away  Practice effects  Cohort effects  Participants drop out, move away  Practice effects  Cohort effects

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Rights of Research Participants  Protection From Harm  Informed Consent  Privacy  Knowledge of Results  Beneficial Treatments  Protection From Harm  Informed Consent  Privacy  Knowledge of Results  Beneficial Treatments