Thinking & Language Concepts are mental groupings of similar objects, events, ideas and people. We often form concepts by developing prototypes, the best example of a category. Once the prototype is created, our memory of new items will shift it toward the category prototype. Fig Shown a face that was 70% Caucasian, people tended to classify the person as Caucasian and to recollect the face as more Caucasian than it was. (Corneille et al., 2004) (m 352 c f ) People shown 70% male faces will later remember most of them as male. (Huart et al., 2005).(m 352 c 338) We are slow to perceive an illness if the symptoms don't match our prototype. (Bishop, 1991).(m 352 c 338)

Problem Solving: Obstacles & Strategies Algorithm: a methodical, logical rule or process that guarantees solving a particular problem. The computer way. Heuristics: a simple thinking strategy the often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently, usually speedier but more error prone. An example: “Two wrongs don't make a right, but three rights make a left.” Insight or the 'aha moment' is a burst of right temporal lobe activity accompanying a solution formed in the left cerebral hemisphere. Fig (Jung-Beeman et al., 2004).(m 354 c 340 f 9.2) But this combination of fact and feeling can lead us astray. Confirmation bias is the tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence.

Problem Solving Once we incorrectly represent a problem, it is difficult to restructure our approach to it. This mental set: we use the 'same old' approach, even when it doesn't work. A very good example is the Alcubierre-White theorem that proves that we can travel across the galaxy faster than light (yes, warp drive is coming). We kept thinking bullets, and the solution was wings. Look it up in Wikipedia. A greater problem is the availability heuristic; the very thing that makes neural networks so successful is also their undoing. We make decisions on the first thing that 'pops' into our minds. But...it is the weird, the sexy, the dangerous that pops up, because we evolved to anticipate danger, not statistics. Fig shows the difference between a terrorist attack and death by a drunk driver. (m 356 c 342 f9.5)

Overconfidence Overconfidence is the tendency to overestimate the accuracy of our knowledge and judgments. Why? Our upbeat, problem- solving left brains feel good making decisions, even if they are wrong. (Baumeister, 1989) (m 357 c343). Belief perseverance is our tendency to stand by our judgments, even when wrong. The best way to beat this emotional stance is to consider the opposite point of view. This is also known as hypothetical reasoning. Study the Fear Factor inset on pgs. (m c ) for the next exam. Framing is the most difficult of thought-flaws. See Linville et al., (1992) and college student's understanding of condom safety. (m 359 c 345)

Intuition Intuition is huge. Unconscious influences on our decision-making is strong support for dual processing. When making complex decisions, we benefit by letting our brain work on the problem without thinking about it. (Strick et al., 2010).(m 360 c 346) Intuition is usually adaptive; it allows us to react quickly. People's automatic, unconscious associations with a political position can even predict their future decisions before they consciously make up their minds. (Galdi et al., 2008) (m 361 c 347) Intuition is recognition born of experience; especially it is the most efficient solution, born of the integration of many parts of the brain. And this leads us to a startling conclusion: other species besides ourselves can make intelligent decisions; our brain is simply specialized for language.

Animal Thinking Alex the African grey parrot could categorize and name objects, count up to 6, and speak the names of objects. He could add two small clusters of objects (geometrically cut fruit roll-ups) and announce the sum. And, he understand the concept of the placeholder, the blank space that changes a sequence of objects into a new grouping. This is called zero, and we humans only came up with this 1,000 years ago. (Pepperberg, 2009).(m 362 c 348) Apes can exhibit foresight, by storing a tool that they can use to retrieve food the next day. (Kohler 1925).(m 362 c 348) Researchers have found at least 39 local customs related to chimpanzee tool use, grooming, and courtship. (Whiten & Boesch, 2001). See Fig 27.7 (c 9.7)They also show altruism, cooperation and group aggression. (Anderson et al., 2010).(m 363 c 349)